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The Holarchaeidae are a spider family with only two described species in one genus Holarchaea.

They are only up to 1.5mm in size and shiny black to beige in color. Together with the Uloboridae and possibly the Mesothelae, they are one of three taxa of spiders known to lack venom glands.

Distribution

Holarchaeid spiders are known only from the forests of Tasmania and New Zealand, where they live in microhabitats with consistently high humidity.

Species

Holarchaea Forster, 1955

Holarchaea globosa (Hickman, 1981) (Tasmania)
Holarchaea novaeseelandiae (Forster, 1949) (New Zealand)

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Hickmania is a genus of cribellate spiders with a single species, Hickmania troglodytes, known as the Tasmanian cave spider, that occurs only in Tasmania, where it is widely distributed, especially in underground drainage and cave systems, where large numbers can be found in the entrances.

They are up to 2 cm long, with a legspan of up to 18 cm; its web can have a diameter of more than one meter. The smaller males have a distinct kink-like curve near the end of each second leg. These kinks are used to hold the female's head while mating.

Spiders of these species have an unusually long lifetime for araneomorph spiders: they can last several decades.

This spider, the only one of its own subfamily (Hickmaniinae), is the last of an old Gondwanan lineage; its nearest relatives are found in South America.

It is an icon species for faunal conservation in Tasmania.

Name

The genus name is in honor of an arachnologist called Hickman, a professor from the University of Tasmania who specialised in spiders. The species name is Greek troglodytes, "cave-dweller".

Sources

Doran, N.E., Richardson, A.M.M. & Swain, R. (2001), "The reproductive behaviour of Hickmania troglodytes, the Tasmanian cave spider (Araneae, Austrochilidae)", Journal of Zoology 253: 405-418

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Hexathelidae is the only family in the superfamily Hexatheloidea, and one of two families (along with Dipluridae) of spiders known as funnel-webs. This order is sometimes incorrectly referred to (in unknown references) as the venomous funnel-web tarantulas, due to the inclusion of the Australian funnel-web spiders, including the Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus). Most species in Hexathelidae are not dangerous to humans.

Description


Male Porrhothele antipodiana

Hadronyche modesta, the harmless Victorian funnel-web spider
These spiders are medium-to-large in size, with body lengths ranging from 1 to 5 cm (0.5 to 2 in). The body is typically three times longer than it is wide. They are darkly colored, ranging from black to brown, with a glossy carapace covering the front part of the body. Like the related diplurid spiders, the hexathelids have generally long spinnerets; this is especially true of A. robustus. The eyes of these spiders are close together.

Their moderately long posterior spinnerets and other features make the Hexathelidae appear similar to the Dipluridae, and were considered a subfamily of the latter until 1980.

Like other Mygalomorphae (also called the Orthognatha, an infraorder of spiders which includes the true tarantulas), these spiders have fangs which point straight down and do not cross each other (see also Araneomorphae). They have ample venom glands that lie entirely within their chelicerae. Their chelicerae and fangs are large and powerful. Although they are rather small compared to the true tarantulas, as venomous specimens they should not be handled without taking substantial precautions because their fangs have been known to penetrate fingernails and soft shoes, resulting in dangerous bites.

Range and habitat

Most hexathelids are found in Australia, New Zealand, and Asia. One species is known in the Mediterranean region and two from South America. Two species exist in Central Africa.

Hexathelids typically live in burrows, which are constructed in the ground or in tree hollows. An elaborately constructed burrow entrance is common. These spiders construct a funnel shaped web and lurk for prey in the small end of the funnel. They frequently search for a place to nest under human dwellings, or under nearby rocks, logs, or other similar objects. They are most active at night. Some build in rainforest, both in the soil and in hollows on trees; others build entirely in sand, e.g., Fraser Island, southeastern Queensland. In Australia, these spiders tend to prefer cooler climates and hence are found primarily in rainforest

Most species live in rainforests, but they also exist in other habitats, from sea level to high up in the mountains.

Medical significance

There are four genera known to contain medically significant spiders —Atrax, Illawarra and Hadronyche of Australia, and Macrothele, which contains some species considered dangerous in Taiwan and parts of eastern Asia.

Genera

The categorization into subfamilies follows Raven, 1985.


Male Macrothele yaginumai from Okinawa

Threatening female Macrothele gigas
Hexathelinae Simon, 1892
Bymainiella Raven, 1978 — Australia
Hexathele Ausserer, 1871 — New Zealand
Mediothele Raven & Platnick, 1978 — Chile
Paraembolides Raven, 1980 — Australia
Rosamygale † Selden & Gall, 1992 — (fossil, Triassic)
Rosamygale grauvogeli † (Selden & Gall, 1992)
Scotinoecus Simon, 1892 — Chile, Argentina
Teranodes Raven, 1985 — Australia
Atracinae Hogg, 1901 — Australia
Atrax O. P-Cambridge, 1877 — Australia
Hadronyche L. Koch, 1873 — Australia
Illawarra Gray, 2010 — Australia
Macrothelinae Simon, 1892
Macrothele Ausserer, 1871 — Africa, Europe, Asia
Porrhothele Simon, 1892 — New Zealand
Plesiothelinae Raven, 1980
Plesiothele Raven, 1978 — Tasmania

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Heteropoda davidbowie is a species of huntsman spider of the Heteropoda genus. It was described from Cameron Highlands in peninsular Malaysia and named in honor of singer David Bowie.

Taxonomy

Heteropoda davidbowie was first described by Peter Jäger in 2008, based on a specimen collected by G. Ackermann in 2007 in the Cameron Highlands of peninsular Malaysia. The species name honors David Bowie, with particular reference to songs such as "Glass Spider" (from the 1987 album Never Let Me Down), and the resemblance of the frontal view of the spider to the singer's painted face in his early career.

Description

They are sexually dimorphic and body length ranges from medium to large: the male 15.3–18.2 millimetres (0.60–0.72 in); the female 21.3–25.3 mm (0.84–1.00 in). Males have an overall reddish brown dorsum with distinct brightly colored hairs forming patches and lines. The body has short dense hair, prominently interspersed with long bright orange hairs. The posterior half of body has a distinct red line surrounded by red hairs. The pedipalps are black, and the legs lack any distinct pattern. Females are similar to males, but the female's dorsum coloration may vary from greyish to reddish brown. Their legs are annulated with dark spots on bright regions, and there is a prominent triangular patch on the venter between the epigastric furrow and spinnerets.

Distribution

Heteropoda davidbowie is found in West Malaysia (Cameron Highlands), Singapore, Sumatra and possibly Southern Thailand.

Natural history and ecology

Adults are often seen on tree bark. Juveniles have been found on leaf litter and leaves on shrubs.


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Heterometrus, which members are also known by the collective vernacular name giant forest scorpions, is a genus of scorpion belonging to the family Scorpionidae. It is distributed widely across tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia, including Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, as well as India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and China (Tibet). It is notable for containing some of the largest living species of scorpions.

Taxonomy

The genus was introduced by C.G. Ehrenberg (in Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828), originally as a subgenus of the genus Buthus. It was elevated to genus rank by F. Karsch in 1879. H.W.C. Couzijn (1978, 1981) subdivided the genus into several subgenera, but F. Kovařík (2004) synonymized these subgenera with the nominal genus.

The content of this genus may vary, depending on the authority. At least 33 species are known, many of which are quite similar in appearance:

Heterometrus barberi (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus liocheles (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus bengalensis (C.L. Koch, 1841)
Heterometrus cimrmani (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus cyaneus (C.L. Koch, 1836)
Heterometrus flavimanus (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus fulvipes (C.L. Koch, 1837)
Heterometrus gravimanus (Pocock, 1894)
Heterometrus indus (DeGeer, 1778)
Heterometrus kanarensis (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus keralaensis (Tikader & Bastawade, 1983)
Heterometrus laoticus (Couzijn, 1981)
Heterometrus latimanus (Pocock, 1894)
Heterometrus liangi (Zhu & Yang, 2007)
Heterometrus liophysa (Thorell, 1888)
Heterometrus liurus (Pocock, 1897)
Heterometrus longimanus (Herbst, 1800)
Heterometrus madraspatensis (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus mysorensis (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus nepalensis (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus petersii (Thorell, 1876)
Heterometrus phipsoni (Pocock, 1893)
Heterometrus rolciki (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus scaber (Thorell, 1876)
Heterometrus sejnai Kovařík, 2004
Heterometrus spinifer (Ehrenberg, 1828)
Heterometrus swammerdami (Simon, 1872)
Heterometrus telanganaensis (Javed, Mirza, Tampal & Lourenço, 2010)
Heterometrus thorellii (Pocock, 1897)
Heterometrus tibetanus (Lourenço, Qi & Zhu, 2005)
Heterometrus tristis (Henderson, 1919)
Heterometrus ubicki (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus wroughtoni (Pocock, 1899)
Heterometrus xanthopus (Pocock, 1897)
General characteristics

Members of Heterometrus are generally large-sized scorpions (100–200 mm total length). Coloration is dark in most species, often uniformly brown or black, sometimes with a greenish shine; with brighter-colored telson, walking legs and/or pedipalp pincers in some species. The scorpions are heavily built with especially powerful and globose pedipalp pionkes, broad mesosomal tergites and a proportionally slender and thin metasoma. The telson is proportionally small and the stinger often shorter than the vesicle. The cephalothorax and mesosoma are largely devoid of carinae and granulation and the median eyes are situated in a small, lenticular depression on the cephalothorax. Some species are parthenogenic


Heterometrus laoticus at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand.

Heterometrus bengalensis (Juvenile) in Ezhimala, Payyanur, Kerala, India
As in other genera of the Scorpionidae, the symptoms from Heterometrus envenomations are rather mild and no human fatalities are known. The sting causes local pain, inflammation, oedema, swelling and redness of the skin, lasting for hours to a few days. A study has shown that plant extracts known in the traditional Thai medicine as natural scorpion venom antidotes are effective as symptomatic treatment of H. laoticus stings. The protein heteroscorpine-1 was found the major component of the venom in H. laoticus.

Habitat

Species of Heterometrus live in vegetated, often forested, humid regions with subtropical to tropical climate. As most scorpions they are predominantly nocturnal and hide in burrows, below logs and in leaf litter.

In captivity

Due to their impressive size, low toxicity and docile behavior, species of Heterometrus are popular pet scorpions. Unlike many other scorpions they can be kept in pairs or small groups.

A group of up to three adult individuals need a vivarium c. 60 x 30 x 30 cm (for 1–3 specimens) in size with a thick layer of peat or similar plant-litter substrate at the ground. A flat hiding place (e.g. a piece of bark) must be provided for each individual. Temperature should range from 21–30 °C within the vivarium and a source of water must be present. Air humidity has to be maintained at or above 80%. The scorpions will feed on living food (small insects like crickets).


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Heterometrus swammerdami holds the record for being the world's largest scorpion species at 9 inches (23 cm) in length, and it can weigh as much as 56 grams (2.0 oz). Its venom is not usually lethal to humans because it has evolved to kill its prey by crushing it with its pincers and not by venom. Subspecies H. swammerdami titanicus can be found in Sri Lanka and India.


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Heterometrus spinifer, the Giant Forest Scorpion or Giant Blue Scorpion, is a species of scorpions belonging to the family Scorpionidae.

Description

Heterometrus spinifer can reach a length of about 10–12 centimetres (3.9–4.7 in). The body is shiny black with gray-green reflections. The pincers are highly developed. It feeds primarily on insects, mainly cockroaches, crickets and locusts. Its venom can cause very severe pain, disorders of vision and mild numbness in the affected area but it is not lethal for the man. These scorpions are very aggressive, using their large pedipalps to attack, more than their tail.

Distribution and habitat

This species can be found in South East Asia, including Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Generally, these terrestrial scorpions live in moist forests in the dark undergrowth under logs or other debris and they burrow into the ground where it can hide during the day.


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Hadrurus arizonensis, the giant desert hairy scorpion, giant hairy scorpion, or Arizona Desert hairy scorpion, is the largest scorpion in North America, and one of the 8–9 species of Hadrurus in the United States, attaining a length of 14 cm (5.5 in). Its large size allows it to feed easily on other scorpions and a variety of other prey, including lizards and snakes. This species is usually yellow with a dark top and has lobster-like pincers. It gets its common names from the brown hairs that cover its body. These hairs help it to detect vibration in the soil. A similar species is Hadrurus spadix.

Habitat

Skorpion fg02.jpg
Hadrurus arizonensis is distributed throughout the Sonora and Mojave deserts. In Mexico, the species' range flanks the Gulf of California in Sonoran and Baja California Norte. In the United States, it is found in the western two thirds of Arizona, the Colorado Desert and Mojave Desert regions of southern California, southern Nevada, and extreme southwestern Utah. Arizona Desert hairy scorpions are a warm-desert species, specially adapted to hot and dry conditions. They are usually found in and around washes or low-elevation valleys where they dig elaborate burrows (up to 2.5 m or 8 ft 2 in) and emerge at night to forage for prey and mates. Other species commonly encountered living sympatrically with this species are: Smeringurus mesaensis, Hoffmannius confusus, and Hoffmannius spinigerus.

Diet and behavior

It is a burrowing scorpion, but is commonly found under rocks containing moisture. Its diet consists of large insects, spiders, and small vertebrates. This is an aggressive and active scorpion, which, as with all scorpions, is nocturnal. Like all scorpions, the giant desert hairy scorpion gives birth to live young, which remain on the mother's back for a week or more before leaving.

Toxicity

Although this scorpion is big, its venom is not very potent, and its sting is commonly perceived to be about as painful as a honeybee's sting. The venom has an LD50 value of 168 mg/kg. However, an allergic reaction to its venom can be fatal; symptoms can include difficulty breathing, excessive swelling, and prolonged pain.


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