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Vietbocap thienduongensis (Vietnamese: Bọ cạp Thiên Đường, literally "Paradise scorpion") is a species of scorpion in the family Pseudochactidae. This species was found by Phạm Đình Sắc (Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources (IEBR), an organ under the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST)) and Wilson Lourenço (Paris Museum of Natural History – National Museum of Natural History) inside Thiên Đường Cave, a cave located in Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Quảng Bình Province and they announced their discovery in Comptes Rendus Biologies.


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Tityus serrulatus, the Brazilian yellow scorpion, is a species of scorpion belonging to the family Buthidae. It is native to Brazil and its venom is extremely toxic. It is considered the most dangerous scorpion in Brazil. It is usually parthenogenetic.


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Heterometrus, which members are also known by the collective vernacular name giant forest scorpions, is a genus of scorpion belonging to the family Scorpionidae. It is distributed widely across tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia, including Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, as well as India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and China (Tibet). It is notable for containing some of the largest living species of scorpions.

Taxonomy

The genus was introduced by C.G. Ehrenberg (in Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1828), originally as a subgenus of the genus Buthus. It was elevated to genus rank by F. Karsch in 1879. H.W.C. Couzijn (1978, 1981) subdivided the genus into several subgenera, but F. Kovařík (2004) synonymized these subgenera with the nominal genus.

The content of this genus may vary, depending on the authority. At least 33 species are known, many of which are quite similar in appearance:

Heterometrus barberi (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus liocheles (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus bengalensis (C.L. Koch, 1841)
Heterometrus cimrmani (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus cyaneus (C.L. Koch, 1836)
Heterometrus flavimanus (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus fulvipes (C.L. Koch, 1837)
Heterometrus gravimanus (Pocock, 1894)
Heterometrus indus (DeGeer, 1778)
Heterometrus kanarensis (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus keralaensis (Tikader & Bastawade, 1983)
Heterometrus laoticus (Couzijn, 1981)
Heterometrus latimanus (Pocock, 1894)
Heterometrus liangi (Zhu & Yang, 2007)
Heterometrus liophysa (Thorell, 1888)
Heterometrus liurus (Pocock, 1897)
Heterometrus longimanus (Herbst, 1800)
Heterometrus madraspatensis (Pocock, 1900)
Heterometrus mysorensis (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus nepalensis (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus petersii (Thorell, 1876)
Heterometrus phipsoni (Pocock, 1893)
Heterometrus rolciki (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus scaber (Thorell, 1876)
Heterometrus sejnai Kovařík, 2004
Heterometrus spinifer (Ehrenberg, 1828)
Heterometrus swammerdami (Simon, 1872)
Heterometrus telanganaensis (Javed, Mirza, Tampal & Lourenço, 2010)
Heterometrus thorellii (Pocock, 1897)
Heterometrus tibetanus (Lourenço, Qi & Zhu, 2005)
Heterometrus tristis (Henderson, 1919)
Heterometrus ubicki (Kovařík, 2004)
Heterometrus wroughtoni (Pocock, 1899)
Heterometrus xanthopus (Pocock, 1897)
General characteristics

Members of Heterometrus are generally large-sized scorpions (100–200 mm total length). Coloration is dark in most species, often uniformly brown or black, sometimes with a greenish shine; with brighter-colored telson, walking legs and/or pedipalp pincers in some species. The scorpions are heavily built with especially powerful and globose pedipalp pionkes, broad mesosomal tergites and a proportionally slender and thin metasoma. The telson is proportionally small and the stinger often shorter than the vesicle. The cephalothorax and mesosoma are largely devoid of carinae and granulation and the median eyes are situated in a small, lenticular depression on the cephalothorax. Some species are parthenogenic


Heterometrus laoticus at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand.

Heterometrus bengalensis (Juvenile) in Ezhimala, Payyanur, Kerala, India
As in other genera of the Scorpionidae, the symptoms from Heterometrus envenomations are rather mild and no human fatalities are known. The sting causes local pain, inflammation, oedema, swelling and redness of the skin, lasting for hours to a few days. A study has shown that plant extracts known in the traditional Thai medicine as natural scorpion venom antidotes are effective as symptomatic treatment of H. laoticus stings. The protein heteroscorpine-1 was found the major component of the venom in H. laoticus.

Habitat

Species of Heterometrus live in vegetated, often forested, humid regions with subtropical to tropical climate. As most scorpions they are predominantly nocturnal and hide in burrows, below logs and in leaf litter.

In captivity

Due to their impressive size, low toxicity and docile behavior, species of Heterometrus are popular pet scorpions. Unlike many other scorpions they can be kept in pairs or small groups.

A group of up to three adult individuals need a vivarium c. 60 x 30 x 30 cm (for 1–3 specimens) in size with a thick layer of peat or similar plant-litter substrate at the ground. A flat hiding place (e.g. a piece of bark) must be provided for each individual. Temperature should range from 21–30 °C within the vivarium and a source of water must be present. Air humidity has to be maintained at or above 80%. The scorpions will feed on living food (small insects like crickets).


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Heterometrus swammerdami holds the record for being the world's largest scorpion species at 9 inches (23 cm) in length, and it can weigh as much as 56 grams (2.0 oz). Its venom is not usually lethal to humans because it has evolved to kill its prey by crushing it with its pincers and not by venom. Subspecies H. swammerdami titanicus can be found in Sri Lanka and India.


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Heterometrus spinifer, the Giant Forest Scorpion or Giant Blue Scorpion, is a species of scorpions belonging to the family Scorpionidae.

Description

Heterometrus spinifer can reach a length of about 10–12 centimetres (3.9–4.7 in). The body is shiny black with gray-green reflections. The pincers are highly developed. It feeds primarily on insects, mainly cockroaches, crickets and locusts. Its venom can cause very severe pain, disorders of vision and mild numbness in the affected area but it is not lethal for the man. These scorpions are very aggressive, using their large pedipalps to attack, more than their tail.

Distribution and habitat

This species can be found in South East Asia, including Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Generally, these terrestrial scorpions live in moist forests in the dark undergrowth under logs or other debris and they burrow into the ground where it can hide during the day.


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Hadrurus arizonensis, the giant desert hairy scorpion, giant hairy scorpion, or Arizona Desert hairy scorpion, is the largest scorpion in North America, and one of the 8–9 species of Hadrurus in the United States, attaining a length of 14 cm (5.5 in). Its large size allows it to feed easily on other scorpions and a variety of other prey, including lizards and snakes. This species is usually yellow with a dark top and has lobster-like pincers. It gets its common names from the brown hairs that cover its body. These hairs help it to detect vibration in the soil. A similar species is Hadrurus spadix.

Habitat

Skorpion fg02.jpg
Hadrurus arizonensis is distributed throughout the Sonora and Mojave deserts. In Mexico, the species' range flanks the Gulf of California in Sonoran and Baja California Norte. In the United States, it is found in the western two thirds of Arizona, the Colorado Desert and Mojave Desert regions of southern California, southern Nevada, and extreme southwestern Utah. Arizona Desert hairy scorpions are a warm-desert species, specially adapted to hot and dry conditions. They are usually found in and around washes or low-elevation valleys where they dig elaborate burrows (up to 2.5 m or 8 ft 2 in) and emerge at night to forage for prey and mates. Other species commonly encountered living sympatrically with this species are: Smeringurus mesaensis, Hoffmannius confusus, and Hoffmannius spinigerus.

Diet and behavior

It is a burrowing scorpion, but is commonly found under rocks containing moisture. Its diet consists of large insects, spiders, and small vertebrates. This is an aggressive and active scorpion, which, as with all scorpions, is nocturnal. Like all scorpions, the giant desert hairy scorpion gives birth to live young, which remain on the mother's back for a week or more before leaving.

Toxicity

Although this scorpion is big, its venom is not very potent, and its sting is commonly perceived to be about as painful as a honeybee's sting. The venom has an LD50 value of 168 mg/kg. However, an allergic reaction to its venom can be fatal; symptoms can include difficulty breathing, excessive swelling, and prolonged pain.


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Euscorpius is a genus of scorpions, commonly called small wood-scorpions. It presently contains 17 species (but see below) and is the type genus of the family Euscorpiidae - long included in the Chactidae - and the subfamily Euscorpiinae.

The most common members belong to the E. carpathicus species complex, which makes up the subgenus Euscorpius. This group is widespread from North Africa and Spain to temperate Eurasia from England and northern France through the Czech Republic to Russia.

The species range in colour from yellow-brown to dark brown. Many are brown with yellow legs and stinger. The largest is E. italicus at 5 cm (2 in), and the smallest is E. germanus at 1.5 cm (0.6 in). The venom of Euscorpius species is generally very weak, with effects similar to a mosquito bite. Some smaller specimens may not even be able to puncture the human skin with their stings.

Species[3]

The genus is currently undergoing revision and the status of taxa is liable to change.

Euscorpius alpha Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius avcii Tropea, Yağmur, Koç, Yeşilyurt & Rossi, 2012
Euscorpius balearicus Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius beroni Fet, 2000
Euscorpius carpathicus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Euscorpius concinnus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius flavicaudis (DeGeer, 1778)
Euscorpius gamma Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius germanus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius hadzii Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius italicus (Herbst, 1800)
Euscorpius koschewnikowi Birula, 1900
Euscorpius lycius Yagmur, 2013
Euscorpius mingrelicus (Kessler, 1874)
Euscorpius naupliensis (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius oglasae Di Caporiacco, 1950 (recently split from E. carpathicus)
Euscorpius sicanus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius tauricus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius tergestinus (C.L.Koch, 1837) – Skeged Scorpion
^ Rein (2008b,c)
^ Tropea, Gioele; Yagmur, Ersen; Koç, Halil; Yeşilyurt, Fatih; Rossi, Andrea (2012). "A new species of Euscorpius Thorell, 1876 (Scorpiones, Euscorpiidae) from Turkey". ZooKeys. 219: 63–80. doi:10.3897/zookeys.219.3597.

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Emperor scorpions fluoresce under UV light.

Determining the Sex of an Emperor Scorpion.
The emperor scorpion, Pandinus imperator, is a species of scorpion native to rainforests and savannas in West Africa. It is one of the largest scorpions in the world and lives for 6–8 years. Its body is black, but like other scorpions it glows pastel green or blue under ultraviolet light. It is a popular species in the pet trade, and is protected by CITES.

Description

An emperor scorpion on sand.
The emperor scorpion (Pandinus imperator) is one of the largest species of scorpion in the world, with adults averaging about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in length and a weight of 30 g. However, some species of forest scorpions are fairly similar to the emperor scorpion in size, and one scorpion, Heterometrus swammerdami, holds the record for being the world's largest scorpion at 9 inches (23 cm) in length. The large pincers are blackish-red and have a granular texture. The front part of the body, or prosoma, is made up of four sections, each with a pair of legs. Behind the fourth pair of legs are comb-like structures known as pectines, which tend to be longer in males than in females. The tail, known as the metasoma, is long and curves back over the body. It ends in the large receptacle containing the venom glands and is tipped with a sharp, curved stinger. Scorpion stings can be categorized as mild (similar to a bee sting) to severe to humans depending on the species. Most people are not affected by the Emperor Scorpion's sting, though some people may be allergic to scorpion stings in general. Sensory hairs cover the pincers and tail, enabling the emperor scorpion to detect prey through vibrations in the air and ground.

When gravid (pregnant), the body of a female expands to expose the whitish membranes connecting the segments. The emperor scorpion fluoresces greenish-blue under ultra-violet light.

They are known for their docile behavior and almost harmless sting; they do not use their sting to defend themselves when they are adults, however, they may use it in their adolescent stages. They prefer to use their pincers to crush and dismember their prey, their exoskeleton is very sclerotic, causing them to have a metallic greenish black color.

They are often confused with a similar genus (heterometrus), and are one of the most famous scorpions.

Habitat and distribution

The emperor scorpion is an African rainforest species, but also present in savanna. It is found in a number of African countries, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Togo, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone.

This species inhabits both tropical forest and open savannas. The emperor scorpion burrows beneath the soil and hides beneath rocks and debris, and also often burrows in termite mounds.

Feeding Habits

The emperor scorpion usually preys on insects and other terrestrial invertebrates, although it will occasionally eat small vertebrates such as mice and lizards. Adult emperor scorpions use their large pincers to tear apart prey while juvenile emperor scorpions use their stingers to paralyze prey.

Conservation and human impact

African Emperor scorpion venom contains the toxins imperatoxin and pandinotoxin.

P. imperator is a popular scorpion in the pet trade, which has led to such over-collecting in the wild that it is now a CITES-listed animal.


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Buthidae is the largest family of scorpions, containing about 80 genera and over 800 species as of mid-2008. Its members are known as, for example, fat-tailed scorpions and bark scorpions. There are a few very large genera (like Ananteris, Centruroides, Compsobuthus or Tityus), but also a high number of species-poor or monotypic ones. New taxa are being described at a rate of several to several dozen new species per year. They occur in the warmer parts of every major landmass on Earth, except on New Zealand. Together with the Microcharmidae, the Buthidae make up the superfamily Buthoidea. The family was established by Carl Ludwig Koch in 1837.

Around 20 species of medically important (meaning potentially lethal to humans) scorpions are known and all but one of these are members of Buthidae. In dead specimens, the spine beneath the stinger, characteristic for this family, can be observed.

List of genera and species

Afghanobuthus Lourenco, 2005
Afroisometrus Kovarik, 1997
Akentrobuthus Lamoral, 1976
Alayotityus Armas, 1973
Ananteris
Androctonus – fattail scorpions
Anomalobuthus
Apistobuthus
Australobuthus
Babycurus
Baloorthochirus
Birulatus
Buthacus
Butheoloides
Butheolus
Buthiscus
Buthoscorpio (includes "Stenochirus" jinnahii and "S." rahmatii)
Buthus
Centruroides – typical bark scorpions
Charmus
Cicileus
Cicileiurus
Compsobuthus
Congobuthus
Darchenia
Egyptobuthus
Grosphus
Hemibuthus
Hemilychas
Himalayotityobuthus
Hoplocystis (a nomen dubium)
Hottentotta
Iranobuthus
Isometrus
Isometroides
Karasbergia
Kraepelinia
Lanzatus
Leiurus
Liobuthus
Lissothus
Lychas
Lychasoides
Mauritanobuthus
Mesobuthus (paraphyletic?)
Mesotityus
Microananteris
Microbuthus
Microtityus
Neobuthus
Neogrosphus
Odontobuthus
Odonturus
Orthochirus
Orthochiroides
Orthochirus (includes Paraorthochirus and Simonoides)
Parabuthus
Pectinibuthus
Physoctonus
Plesiobuthus
Polisius
Psammobuthus
Pseudolissothus
Pseudolychas
Pseudouroplectes
Razianus
Rhopalurus
Sabinebuthus
Sassanidothus
Somalibuthus
Somalicharmus
Thaicharmus
Tityobuthus
Tityopsis
Tityus
Troglorhopalurus
Troglotityobuthus
†Uintascorpio (Eocene, Green River Formation)
Uroplectes
Uroplectoides
Vachoniolus
Vachonus
Zabius
Description

Few Buthidae scorpions are among the larger scorpions; on average the members of this family are mid-sized tending towards smallish. Microtityus and Microbuthus barely reach 2 cm (0.8 in). The largest members are found among Androctonus (fattail scorpions), Apistobuthus, and Centruroides; and can reach a dozen cm (approximately 5 inches). Most of them have between two and five pairs of eyes. Some resemble Vaejovidae. Chaerilidae and Chactidae have one pair of eyes at most, and the former show a yellowish spot between and to the rear of these.

Their vernacular name refers to the thick tails found in many Buthidae, especially in the Old World. The pedipalps on the other hand tend to be weak, slender and tweezer-like. Members of Buthidae are generally rather cryptically colored, quite uniformly ochre to brown, but some are black or (like Centruroides and Uroplectes) more vividly colored. More conspicuous patterns and shapes occur e.g. in Isometrus or Lychas.

Toxicity and relationship with humans

Scorpion § Scorpion sting and venom

A handful of sometimes species-rich genera – fattail scorpions (Androctonus), Centruroides, Hottentotta,[Note 1] Leiurus, Parabuthus and Tityus – are notorious for their strong venom. Human fatalities have been recorded from fewer than two dozen species; identification of e.g. a particular Tityus is likely problematic and detailed data on the venom exists only for a small fraction of the Buthidae (see BmKAEP from the venom of Mesobuthus martensii, for an example).

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Brontoscorpio anglicus is a species of fossil scorpion. Its remains were discovered in Upper Silurian-aged sandstone from Trimpley, Worcestershire, and the species was described on the basis of an incomplete single free finger of a pedipalp, almost 10 centimetres (3.9 in) long. The complete animal is estimated to be at least 90 centimetres (35 in) long. Its carnivorous diet may have consisted of worms or other arthropods.


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Bothriurus olaen is a species of scorpion from the family Bothriuridae. It lives in mountains Sierras de Córdoba and San Luis in central Argentina. Little is known about their habitat, most likely they are mountain dwellers, and nothing is known about their venom. The body length is about 50 millimetres (2.0 in).


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Androctonus australis is a hardy desert scorpion from North Africa, Somalia, the Middle East, Pakistan and India. A. australis, along with A. amoreuxi and Pandinus imperator, is the most commonly available scorpions found in the exotic animal trade.

Hardiness

Unlike most other animals that live in deserts, Androctonus does not dig burrows to protect itself from a sandstorm. Instead, it can withstand sandstorms powerful enough to strip paint off steel, without any apparent damage. The resistance of Androctonus to sandstorms is suspected to be due to the discovery of its odd exoskeleton surface. Its armor is covered with dome-shaped granules that are 10 µm (0.0004 in) high and 25–80 µm (0.0010–0.0031 in) across. When its odd surface is translated into other materials it protects them to a certain degree as well, which has led to the possibility of the applicability of imitation surfaces in such objects as aeroplanes and helicopters.

Etymology

The name Androctonus australis is derived from the Greek word Androctonus (roughly translated as "man-killer") and the Latin word australis (translated as "south") which together translate as "southern man-killer".

Description

Androctonus australis is a medium-sized scorpion which can grow up to 10 centimetres in length. It has a very thick and powerful tail, and stripes on the sides of its dome for better vision while attacking another animal or for the use of self defense.

Toxicity

Androctonus australis has very potent venom and is one of the world's most dangerous scorpions due to its relative toxicity and temperament. It claims several lives each year.


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Akrav israchanani is an extinct species of scorpions from the Ayyalon Cave in Israel.

Description

Akrav israchanani was an eyeless, brown, troglobitic scorpion of about 50mm in length known only from 20 dry, cuticular remains of hollow carcasses. The combinations of characteristics was unusual enough for the scorpion to be placed in its own, monotypic family, however this has been called into question by later researchers

Habitat and Distribution

The scorpion is only known from the Ayyalon Cave in Israel, a deep limestone cave, isolated from rainwater and the surface by a layer of chalk. The extinction of the scorpion is inferred from the lack of live or recently dead specimens.


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Mesobuthus martensii is a species of scorpion in the family Buthidae. Its common names include Chinese scorpion, Manchurian scorpion, Chinese armor-tail scorpion and Chinese golden scorpion. Despite its common name, this scorpion is not only found in Manchuria or China, but also in Mongolia, Korea (North Korea) and Japan. Its preferred habitat is warm, dry areas with little vegetation. M. martensii can grow to about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long, with females usually slightly larger, and has a life-span of about 4 to 6 years.

Taxonomic history

This species of scorpion was first described as Buthus martensii by German arachnologist Ferdinand Karsch in 1879. Independently, Simon in 1880 described specimens he found in the gardens of the summer palace at Peking (present-day Beijing) as Buthus confucius, which Karsch synonymized as Buthus martensii in 1881. Subsequently in 1950, it was transferred to Mesobuthus, a new genus established by French arachnologist Max Vachon.

Uses

M. martensii, especially its tail, has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for many centuries to treat various neuronal problems, such as chronic pain, paralysis, apoplexy and epilepsy. Over the past few decades, dozens of novel proteins in this scorpion's venom have been identified, cloned and investigated for clinical applications. For instance, at least 51 long-chain peptides related to the sodium channel toxins and 18 peptides related to the potassium channel toxins have been described, along with two peptides, BmK AS and AS1, that act on ryanodine receptors. Apart from having analgesic properties, BmK AS is also the first long-chain scorpion peptide reported to have antimicrobial activity. Amongst the sodium channel-specific neurotoxins, there are a number of muscle relaxants, such as makatoxin I and bukatoxin, while BmKAEP and BmK IT2 have shown anticonvulsant activity in experimental conditions, inhibiting epileptic seizures induced in rats.

BmK AGAP has both analgesic and antitumor properties and recombinant proteins could potentially be used in anticancer treatments.


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Mesobuthus eupeus is a polymorphic scorpion species belonging to the well-known family Buthidae. Commonly known as the lesser Asian scorpion or the mottled scorpion. It is thought to be the most widely dispersed species of the Mesobuthus genus, perhaps even of the family Buthidae.

Description

M. eupeus can reach a size of 4 to 5 centimetres (1.6 to 2.0 in) in length. The entire body is yellow to yellowish brown. The dorsal segments (tergites) of the mesosoma often have longitudinal irregular stripes that are black to dark brown. They exhibit sexual dimorphism, the adult females being generally larger than males but have a lower number of pectinal teeth (16 to 23, as opposed to 22 to 28 in males).

The pedipalps of M. eupeus have a maximum of ten diagonal rows of granules on the fixed finger and eleven on the movable finger. The pedipalp chelae (pincers) are wider than the patella (segment IV). The segments of the metasoma are thick and have eight keels (octocarinate). The telson is subglobose with a flat dorsal surface.

Taxonomy

M. eupeus were first described by the German arachnologist Carl Ludwig Koch in 1839. It is classified under the genus Mesobuthus and belongs to the largest family of scorpions, the thick-tailed scorpion family Buthidae. Currently, more than 23 subspecies of M. eupeus are recognized.

Ecology

M. eupeus feed on small insects such as crickets or small cockroaches. Cannibalism is very rare in this species. They do not dig burrows and prefer using natural spaces and burrows under stones and other objects. They have slender pedipalps so they usually rely on their stings for killing their prey.

Venom

The venom of M. eupeus is not as potent as that of other dangerous buthid species. Victims of stings feel intense pain, hyperemia, swelling and a burning sensation in the affected area, while numbness and itching were also reported in some cases.

As in other scorpions, the venom of M. eupeus contains various neurotoxic proteins that interact specifically with ion channels. A number of unique proteins in this scorpion's venom have been identified, cloned and investigated for clinical applications. For instance, MeuKTX, structurally related to BmKTX (α-KTx3.6) from M. martensii, potently inhibits rKv1.1, rKv1.2 and hKv1.3 channels but does not affect rKv1.4, rKv1.5, hKv3.1, rKv4.3, and hERG channels even at high concentrations. In contrast, BeKm-1 specifically inhibits hERG channels, which are potassium channels critical to maintaining normal electrical activities in the heart, but showed no effects on various other potassium channels tested. Inhibitors of sodium channels have also been found in this venom.

A number of antimicrobial peptides have also been found in the venom of M. eupeus. Meucin-13 and Meucin-18 exhibited extensive cytolytic effects on bacteria, fungi and yeasts. Furthermore, Meucin-24 and Meucin-25, first identified from genetic sequences expressed in their venom gland, were shown to selectively kill Plasmodium falciparum and inhibit the development of Plasmodium berghei, both malaria parasites, but do not harm mammalian cells. These two venom-derived proteins are therefore attractive candidates for the development of anti-malarial drugs.

Iranian researchers have also reported that the venom of M. eupeus has anti-inflammatory properties and is effective as an anti-arthritis treatment in an experimental rat model, but the mechanism of action is unknown.

Habitat and distribution

Mesobuthus eupeus mostly lives in arid or semi-arid habitats with little or no vegetation.

Its geographical distributions consists of eastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, southern Russia, northern Syria, eastern Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Australia, southern Mongolia and northern China.

List of subspecies

Mesobuthus eupeus eupeus (C. L. Koch, 1839)
Mesobuthus eupeus afghanus (Pocock, 1889)
Mesobuthus eupeus barszczewskii (Birula, 1904)
Mesobuthus eupeus bogdoensis (Birula, 1896)
Mesobuthus eupeus haarlovi Vachon, 1958
Mesobuthus eupeus iranus (Birula, 1917)
Mesobuthus eupeus kirmanensis (Birula, 1900)
Mesobuthus eupeus mesopotamicus (Penther, 1912)
Mesobuthus eupeus mongolicus (Birula, 1911)
Mesobuthus eupeus pachysoma (Birula, 1900)
Mesobuthus eupeus persicus (Pocock, 1899)
Mesobuthus eupeus philippovitschi (Birula, 1905)
Mesobuthus eupeus thersites (C. L. Koch, 1839)

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Hemiscorpiidae is a family of scorpions with 72 described species in 12 genera. Their old name is Ischnuridae, which had to be changed due to a naming conflict with the damselfly family of the same name. They at one point also held the name Liochelidae.

Description

Most species have a very flat and broad body plan, due to their main habitat in tight rock crevices. Some long-living species can reach a length of more than 20 cm.

Distribution

Hemiscorpiidae are distributed throughout the world's tropics and subtropics. The family's center of distribution appears to be Africa where several genera are found, although it is also known from Australasia, the Middle East, and South America

Human interaction

Many species are held as pets. Species in this family are one of the less venomous scopions. Only genus Hemiscorpius have a strong venom; especially that of Hemiscorpius lepturus can result in deadly accidents.

Genera

Cheloctonus Pocock, 1892
Chiromachetes Pocock, 1899
Chiromachus Pocock, 1893
Habibiella Vachon, 1974
Hadogenes Kraepelin, 1894
Hemiscorpius Peters, 1861
Heteroscorpion Birula, 1903
Iomachus Pocock, 1893
Liocheles Sundevall, 1833
Monodopisthacanthus Lourenço, 2001
Opisthacanthus Peters, 1861
Paleocheloctonus Lourenço, 1996

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Fattail scorpion or fat-tailed scorpion is the common name given to scorpions of the genus Androctonus, one of the most dangerous groups of scorpions species in the world. They are found throughout the semi-arid and arid regions of the Middle East and Africa. They are a moderate sized scorpion, attaining lengths of 10 cm (just under 4 in). Their common name is derived from their distinctly fat metasoma, or tail, while the Latin name originates from Greek and means "man killer". Their venom contains powerful neurotoxins and is especially potent. Stings from Androctonus species are known to cause several human deaths each year. Several pharmaceutical companies manufacture an antivenom for treatment of Androctonus envenomations.

Geographic range

Androctonus is widespread in North and West Africa, the Middle East and eastwards to the Hindukush region. Countries where Androctonus species live include: Armenia, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Togo, Palestine, Israel, India, Lebanon, Turkey, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Bahrain and Pakistan.

Etymology

A rough English translation of the name Androctonus is "man-killer", from the Greek andras (άνδρας), meaning "man" and kteinein (κτείνειν), meaning "to kill". Crassicauda means fat-tailed, from the Latin crassus meaning "thick" or "fat" and cauda, meaning "tail". Androctonus crassicauda is widespread throughout the Middle East and its name means "fat-tailed man-killer". Similarly, the Latin word for South is australis, from which Androctonus australis, "southern man-killer", derives.

Taxonomy


Androctonus bicolor: The Black fat-tail; note the very slim pedipalps compared to Androctonus crassicauda
Taxonomic reclassification is ongoing, sources tend to disagree on the number of species.

Androctonus afghanus Lourenço & Qi, 2006
Androctonus aleksandrplotkini Lourenço & Qi, 2007
Androctonus amoreuxi (Audouin, 1826)
Androctonus australis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Androctonus baluchicus (Pocock, 1900)
Androctonus bicolor Ehrenberg, 1828
Androctonus crassicauda (Olivier, 1807)
Androctonus dekeyseri Lourenço, 2005
Androctonus eburneus (Pallary, 1928)
Androctonus finitimus (Pocock, 1897)
Androctonus gonneti Vachon, 1948
Androctonus hoggarensis (Pallary, 1929)
Androctonus liouvillei (Pallary, 1924)
Androctonus maelfaiti Lourenço, 2005
Androctonus mauritanicus (Pocock, 1902)
Androctonus maroccanus Lourenço, Ythier & Leguin, 2009
Androctonus sergenti (Vachon, 1948)
Androctonus togolensis Lourenço, 2008
In captivity


Androctonus australis in a terrarium with real Saharan sand
Scorpions such as these are very dangerous, and despite the risks of keeping such a dangerously venomous species in captivity, Androctonus scorpions are frequently found in the exotic animal trade - A. amoreuxi and A. australis being the most commonly available. As with any dangerous scorpion, a potential Androctonus-keeper should think very carefully before acquiring one because a sting may have serious consequences which extend beyond the immediate risks of injury or death. For example, there can be an expensive bill for emergency medical care that the owner's health insurance may not entirely cover. There is also potential legal liability if someone other than the owner is stung. Depending on the jurisdiction in which the keeper lives, some form of license or insurance policy may be required in order to possess a dangerous scorpion. In some jurisdictions, possession of a dangerous scorpion is illegal. Extra precautions must be taken to ensure that the scorpion cannot escape. Scorpions will generally try to kill and eat anything which moves and is smaller than themselves[citation needed]. In order to simulate the desert environment, the enclosure used to keep the scorpion in must be kept at a temperature of between 26 and 30 degrees Celsius (78.8 degrees and 86 degrees Fahrenheit)[citation needed].

In popular culture

The vicious mutated scorpions infesting the fictional English towns of Long Point and Port Pendall in Michael R. Linaker's horror novels Scorpion and Scorpion: Second Generation are said to belong to the A. australis species. (^Published by New English Library, ISBN 0-450-05363-6)

The band Acrassicauda takes its name from the scorpion.


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For other uses, see Deathstalker (disambiguation).
The deathstalker (Leiurus quinquestriatus) is a species of scorpion, a member of the Buthidae family. It is also known as Palestine Yellow scorpion, the Israeli Yellow scorpion, Omdurman scorpion, Naqab desert scorpion and many other colloquial names, which generally originate from the commercial captive trade of the animal. To eliminate confusion, especially important with potentially dangerous species, the scientific name is normally used to refer to them. The name Leiurus quinquestriatus roughly translates into English as "five-striped smooth-tail". Other species of the genus Leiurus are also often referred to as "deathstalkers".

Description

L. quinquestriatus is yellow, and 30–77 millimetres (1.2–3.0 in) long, with an average of 58 mm (2.3 in).

Geographic range

L. quinquestriatus can be found in desert and scrubland habitats ranging from North Africa through to the Middle East. Countries where it lives include Algeria, Bahrain, Chad, Egypt, Ethiopia, Israel, Libya, Mali, Niger, Palestine, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Venom


A deathstalker eating a cricket in captivity
Neurotoxins in L. quinquestriatus venom include:

Chlorotoxin
Charybdotoxin
Scyllatoxin
Agitoxins types one, two and three
The deathstalker is regarded as the most dangerous species of scorpion. Its venom is a powerful mixture of neurotoxins, with a low lethal dose. While a sting from this scorpion is extraordinarily painful, it normally would not kill a healthy adult human; young children, the elderly, or infirm (such as those with a heart condition and those who are allergic) are at much greater risk. Any envenomation runs the risk of anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction to the venom. A study from Israel shows a high rate of pancreatitis following envenomation. If a sting from Leiurus quinquestriatus does prove deadly, the cause of death is usually pulmonary edema.

Antivenom for the treatment of deathstalker envenomations is produced by pharmaceutical companies Twyford (German) and Sanofi Pasteur (French), and by the Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center in Riyadh. Envenomation by the deathstalker is considered a medical emergency even with antivenom treatment, as its venom is unusually resistant to treatment and typically requires large doses of antivenom.

In the United States and other countries outside of the typical range of the deathstalker, there is the additional complicating factor that none of the existing antivenoms are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (or equivalent agencies) and are only available as investigational drugs (INDs). The US Armed Forces maintain an investigational drug application for the AVPC-Riyadh antivenom in the event of envenomation of soldiers in the Gulf War theater of operations, and the Florida Antivenin Bank maintains an IND application for Sanofi Pasteur's Scorpifav antivenom.


Deathstalker in Negev Desert, Israel.
Main article: Chlorotoxin
A component of the deathstalker's venom, the peptide chlorotoxin, has shown potential for treating human brain tumors. There has also been some evidence to show that other components of the venom may aid in the regulation of insulin and could be used to treat diabetes[citation needed].

In 2015 clinical trials were beginning of the use of chlorotoxin with a fluorescent molecule attached as brain tumour "paint" (BLZ-100), to mark cancerous cells in real time during an operation. This is important in brain cancer surgery, where it is vital both to remove as many cancerous cells as possible, but not to remove healthy tissue necessary for brain functioning. In preclinical animal trials the technique could highlight extremely small clusters of as few as 200 cancer cells, compared to the standard use of MRI, with a lower limit in excess of 500,000.

Legality

Possession of L.quinquestriatus may be illegal or regulated in countries with laws prohibiting the keeping of dangerous animals in general. Jurisdictions are increasingly explicitly including L.quinquestriatus in laws requiring permits to keep animals which are not usual pets, or restricting possession of dangerous animals, and in some cases have prohibited the keeping of L.quinquestriatus save by licensed zoos and educational facilities.

In several jurisdictions departments of fish and wildlife require permits for many animals, and a number of cities and municipal governments have prohibited their possession in their bylaws.


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Centruroides gracilis is a species of scorpion in the family Buthidae, the bark scorpions. Its common names include Florida bark scorpion, brown bark scorpion, and slender brown scorpion. In Cuba it is known as alacran prieto ("dusky scorpion") and alacran azul ("blue scorpion"). It is native to parts of the Americas, including Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Ecuador. It is present in other parts as an introduced species, including Cuba, Panama, Colombia, Jamaica, and Florida in the United States. It is also introduced in parts of Africa, including Cameroon and Gabon, as well as the Canary Islands.

The female of the species reaches up to 10 centimeters in length, while the male can exceed 15 centimeters. It is variable in color, sometimes with individuals of different colors occurring in one population, or even one litter. It may be reddish, black with reddish chelae, dark brown with yellowish legs and red chelae, or dark brown with reddish and black tail sections.

The female gives birth to a litter of 25 to 35 young, with litters of 91 recorded. The juveniles ride on the female's back and undergo their first molt at eight days of age. A study of captive scorpions revealed the length of their life cycle. The juveniles progress through instar stages, sometimes dying of complications with the molting process. The female reaches maturity in roughly 300 days, after seven instars, but the males mature at different rates. Some reach sexual maturity in the sixth instar, at about 235 days of age, while some are not mature until the seventh instar, around 281 days old. At mating, the male engages in courtship behavior and produces a spermatophore. Females can reproduce via parthenogenesis, as well. In the laboratory the males had an average life span of about 33 months, while the females lived about 38 months.

This scorpion feeds on insects such as roaches. Captive scorpions can be fed termites or crickets.

The scorpion lives under rocks and tree bark. When given the opportunity it will live in the walls of houses and under rubbish piles in yards.

Predators of the scorpion include the tarantula Brachypelma vagans. The tarantula may kill the scorpion even if it is the scorpion that attacks first.

The scorpion is venomous, but much less toxic than others of its genus. Its venom is neurotoxic and cardiotoxic, causing the release of catecholamines. Local effects from the sting can include pain, redness, itching, and swelling. The venom can produce cardiac effects such as arrhythmia, pulmonary edema, tachycardia or bradycardia, and hyper- or hypotension. Other possible symptoms include nausea, vomiting, sweating, diarrhea, shock, convulsions, coma, and potentially death.

This species is sometimes kept as a pet.


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