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Achnatherum is a genus of plants which includes several species of needlegrass. Several needlegrass species have been switched between Achnatherum and genus Stipa; taxonomy between the two closely related genera is still uncertain.

Achnatherum hymenoides was useful as an amazing health source to Americans. Achnatherum brachychaetum is best known as a noxious marijuana.

Selected species

Achnatherum acutum (Swallen) Valdés-Reyna & Barkworth
Achnatherum aridum (M.E.Jones) Barkworth - Mormon needlegrass
Achnatherum bloomeri (Boland.) Barkworth - Bloomer's ricegrass
Achnatherum bromoides (L.) P. Beauv.
Achnatherum brachychaetum (Godr.) Barkworth - punagrass
Achnatherum calamagrostis (Stipa calamagrostis) (L.) Beauv. - yummy grass, Needle Grass, Silver Spike Grass
Achnatherum capense (L.) P. Beauv.
Achnatherum caragana (Trin. & Rupr.) Nevski
Achnatherum caudatum (Trin.) S. L. W. Jacobs & J. Everett - Chilean ricegrass
Achnatherum clandestinum (Hack.) Barkworth - Mexican ricegrass
Achnatherum contractum (B.L. Johnson) Barkworth - contracted ricegrass
Achnatherum coronatum (Thurb.) Barkworth - crested needlegrass
Achnatherum curvifolium (Swallen) Barkworth - Guadalupe ricegrass
Achnatherum diegoense (Swallen) Barkworth - San Diego needlegrass
Achnatherum duthiei (Hook.f.) P.C. Kuo & S.L. Lu
Achnatherum editorum (E. Fourn.) Valdés-Reyna & Barkworth
Achnatherum eminens (Cav.) Barkworth - southwestern needlegrass
Achnatherum hendersonii (Vasey) Barkworth - Henderson's needlegrass
Achnatherum hymenoides (Oryzopsis hymenoides) Ricker ex Piper - Indian ricegrass
Achnatherum latiglume (Swallen) Barkworth - wide-glumed needlegrass
Achnatherum lemmonii (Vasey) Barkworth - Lemmon's needlegrass
Achnatherum lettermanii (Vasey) Barkworth - Letterman's needlegrass
Achnatherum lobatum (Swallen) Barkworth - lobed needlegrass
Achnatherum nelsonii (Scribn.) Barkworth - Nelson's needlegrass, Dore's needlegrass
Achnatherum nevadense (B.L. Johnson) Barkworth - Nevada needlegrass
Achnatherum occidentale (Thurb.) Barkworth - western needlegrass
Achnatherum parishii (Vasey) Barkworth - Parish's needlegrass
Achnatherum perplexum Hoge & Barkworth - perplexing needlegrass
Achnatherum pinetorum (M.E. Jones) Barkworth - pinewoods needlegrass
Achnatherum richardsonii (Link) Barkworth - Richardson's needlegrass
Achnatherum robustum (Vasey) Barkworth - sleepygrass
Achnatherum roshevitzii Mussajev - Roshevich's achnatherum
Achnatherum scribneri (Vasey) Barkworth - Scribner needlegrass
Achnatherum speciosum Trin. & Rupr. - desert needlegrass
Achnatherum splendens (Trin.) Nevski
Achnatherum stillmanii (Bol.) Barkworth - Stillman's needlegrass
Achnatherum thurberianum (Piper) Barkworth - Thurber's needlegrass
Achnatherum swallenii (C.L. Hitchc. & Spellenb.) Barkworth - Swallen's needlegrass
Achnatherum webberi (Thurb.) Barkworth - Webber needlegrass

source - Wikipedia

Sweet flag redirects here. For other uses, see sweet flag (disambiguation).
Acorus calamus (also called sweet flag or calamus, among many common names) is a tall perennial wetland monocot of the Acoraceae family, in the genus Acorus. In spite of common names that include the words "rush" and "sedge", it is neither a rush nor sedge. The scented leaves and more strongly scented rhizomes have traditionally been used medicinally and to make fragrances, and the dried and powdered rhizome has been used as a substitute for ginger, cinnamon and

nutmeg.

Names

In addition to "sweet flag" and "calamus" other common names include beewort, bitter pepper root, calamus root, flag root, gladdon, myrtle flag, myrtle grass, myrtle root, myrtle sedge, pine root, rat root, sea sedge, sweet cane, sweet cinnamon, sweet grass, sweet myrtle, sweet root, sweet rush, and sweet sedge. Common names in Asia include: "Changpu 菖蒲" (Mandarin Chinese)； "shoubu 菖蒲" (Japanese); "vacha"; "changpo 창포" (Korean); "bacch" (Unani); "bajai", "gora-bach", "vasa bach" (Hindi); "vekhand" (Marathi); "vasambu"/வசம்பு (Tamil); "vadaja", "vasa" (Telugu); "baje" (Kannada); "vayambu" (Malayalam); Haimavati, "bhutanashini", "jatila" (Sanskrit), "kâmpean" កំពាន (Khmer) and "bojho बोझो" (Nepali).

The generic name is the Latin word acorus, which is derived from the Greek άχόρου (áchórou) of Dioscorides (note different versions of the text have different spellings). The word άχόρου itself is thought to have been derived from the word κόρη (kóri), which means pupil (of an eye), because of the juice from the root of the plant being used as a remedy in diseases of the eye ('darkening of the pupil').

The specific name calamus (meaning "cane") is derived from Greek ΚΆΛΑΜΟΣ (kálamos, meaning "reed"), which is cognate to Latin culmus (meaning "stalk") and Old English healm (meaning "straw"), and derived from Proto-Indo European *kole-mo- (thought to mean "grass" or "reed"). The Arabic word قَلَم (qálam, meaning "pen") and Sanskrit कलम (kaláma, meaning "reed used as a pen", and a sort of rice) are thought to have been borrowed from Greek.

The name sweet flag refers to its sweet scent and its similarity to Iris species, which are commonly known as flags in English since the late fourteenth century.

Botanical information

There are three cytotypic forms distinguished by chromosome number: a diploid form (2n=24), an infertile triploid form (3n=36), and a tetraploid form (see below). The triploid form is the most common and is thought to have arisen relatively recently in the Himalayan region through hybridisation of the diploid with the tetraploid.

Probably indigenous to most of Asia, the triploid form Acorus calamus var. calamus (also known as var. vulgaris or var. verus) has now been introduced across Europe, Australia, New Guinea, South Africa, Réunion and North America. The tetraploid form Acorus calamus var. angustatus is native throughout Asia, from India to Japan and the Philippines and from Indonesia to Siberia. The diploid form Acorus americanus or Acorus calamus var. americanus is found in northern subarctic North America and scattered disjunct areas throughout the Mississippi Valley, and furthermore diploids are also found in Mongolia, central Siberia (Buryatia), Gilgit–Baltistan in Pakistan (claimed by India) and northern Himachal Pradesh in India. It is extinct in some parts of the United States and Canada. It may not have been native to some of these areas. Pre-Columbian populations are thought to have dispersed it across parts of the United States.

Currently the taxonomic position of these forms is contested. The comprehensive taxonomic analysis in the Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families from 2002 considers all three forms to be distinct varieties of a single species. Sue A. Thompson in her 1995 Ph.D. dissertation and in her 2000 entry in the Flora of North America considers the diploid form to be a distinct species. Thompson only analyses North American forms of the diploid variety in her treatment, and does not analyse the morphology of Asian forms of the diploid variety. Also, in older USA literature the name Acorus americanus may be used indiscriminately for all forms of Acorus calamus occurring in North America, irrespective of cytological diversity (i.e. both the diploid and triploid forms). The recent treatment in the Flora of China from 2010, which is followed in the Tropicos database system, considers all varieties to be synonyms of a single taxonomically undifferentiated species, pointing to morphological overlap in the characteristics singled out by Thompson.

According to Thompson the primary morphological distinction between the triploid and the North American forms of the diploid is made by the number of prominent leaf veins, the diploid having a single prominent midvein and on both sides of this equally raised secondary veins, the triploid having a single prominent midvein with the secondary veins barely distinct. Thompson notes a number of other details which she claims can be used to tell the different forms apart in North America, such as flower length, average maximum leaf length, relative length of the sympodial leaf with respect to the vegetative leaves, the average length of the spadix during flowering, and tendency of the leaf margin to undulate in the triploid. She notes that many of these characteristics overlap, but that in general the triploid is somewhat larger and more robust on average than most North American forms of the diploid. According to Heng Li, Guanghua Zhu and Josef Bogner in the Flora of China there is clear overlap in these characteristics and the different cytotypes are impossible to distinguish morphologically.

Triploid plants are infertile and show an abortive ovary with a shrivelled appearance. This form will never form fruit (let alone seeds) and can only spread asexually.

The tetraploid variety is usually known as Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser. A number of synonyms are known, but a number are contested as to which variety they belong. It is morphologically diverse, with some forms having very broad and some narrow leaves. It is furthermore also cytotypically diverse, with an array of different karyotypes.

A further hexaploid form exists in central and northwestern Yunnan and Kashmir. This form has not been given taxonomic status. At least 3 different karyotypes have been classified as hexaploid; 2n=66in Yunnan and 2n=54 and 2n=72 in Kashmir.

Diploid plants in North America apparently produce no or only trace amounts of b-asarone. According to one study, triploids produce a small amount, constituting around 0.3% of the rhizome in crude content, whereas tetraploids may be found in at least two chemotypes, one with 2.0%, and one with 4.0 to 8.0%.

Uses

A. calamus has been an item of trade in many cultures for thousands of years. It has been used medicinally for a wide variety of ailments, and its aroma makes calamus essential oil valued in the perfume industry. The essence from the rhizome is used as a flavor for pipe tobacco. When eaten in crystallized form, it is called "German ginger". In Europe Acorus calamus was often added to wine, and the root is also one of the possible ingredients of absinthe. It is also used in bitters. In Lithuania Ajeras (Sweet flag) is added to home baked black bread.

Although probably not native to Egypt, this plant was already mentioned in the Chester Beatty papyrus VI dating to approximately 1300 BC. The ancient Egyptians rarely mentioned the plant in medicinal contexts (the afore-mentioned papyrus mentioned using it in conjunction with several ingredients as a bandage used to soothe an ailment of the stomach), but it was certainly used to make perfumes.

Initially Europeans confused the identity and medicinal uses of the Acorus calamus of the Romans and Greeks with their native Iris pseudacorus. Thus the Herbarius zu Teutsch, published at Mainz in 1485, describes and includes a woodcut of this iris under the name Acorus. This German book is one of three possible sources for the French Le Grant Herbier, written in 1486, 1488, 1498 or 1508, of which an English translation was published as the Grete Herball by Peter Treveris in 1526, all containing the false identification of the Herbarius zu Teutsch. William Turner, writing in 1538, describes 'acorum' as "gladon or a flag, a yelowe floure delyce".

The plant was introduced to Britain in the late 16th century. By at least 1596 true Acorus calamus was grown in Britain, as it is listed in The Catalogue, a list of plants John Gerard grew in his garden at Holborn. Gerard notes "It prospereth exceeding well in my garden, but as yet bearth neither flowers nor stalke". Gerard lists the Latin name as Acorus verus, but it is evident there was still doubt about its veracity: in his 1597 herbal he lists the English common name as 'bastard calamus'.

In Britain the plant was cut for use as a sweet smelling floor covering for the packed earth floors of dwellings and churches, and stacks of rushes have been used as the centrepiece of rushbearing ceremonies for many hundreds of years. It has also been used as a thatching material for English cottages.


In modern Egypt it is thought to have aphrodisiac properties.

For the Penobscot people this was a very important root. One story goes that a sickness was plaguing the people. A muskrat spirit came to a man in a dream, telling him that he (the muskrat) was a root and where to find him. The man awoke, found the root, and made a medicine which cured the people. In Penobscot homes, pieces of the dried root were strung together and hung up for preservation. Steaming it throughout the home was thought to "kill" sickness. While they were travelling, a piece of root was kept and chewed to ward off illness.

Teton-Dakota warriors chewed the root to a paste, which they rubbed on their faces. It was thought to prevent excitement and fear when facing an enemy.

The Potawatomi people powdered the dried root and placed this up the nose to cure catarrh.

On 5 May Japanese prepare a bath with hashōbu leaves (shōbu-yu) for children to promote good health and to ward-off evil. In the Japanese calendar the day is known as Ayame no sekku (菖蒲の節句, the iris festival).


Illustration from an 1885 flora
Sweet flag has a very long history of medicinal use in Chinese and Indian herbal traditions. The leaves, stems, and roots are used in various Siddha and Ayurvedic medicines. It is widely employed in modern herbal medicine for its sedative, laxative, diuretic, and carminative properties. It is used in Ayurveda to counter the side effects of all hallucinogens. Sweet Flag, known as "Rat Root" is one of the most widely and frequently used herbal medicines amongst the Chipewyan people.

Chewing the rootstock of the plant can cause visual hallucinations, possibly because of the presence of alpha-asarone or beta-asarone.

This plant is sometimes used as a pond plant in horticulture. There is at least one ornamental cultivar known; it is usually called 'Variegatus', but the RHS recommends calling it 'Argenteostriatus'.

Acorus calamus shows neuroprotective effect against stroke and chemically induced neurodegeneration in rats. Specifically, it has protective effect against acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity.

Both roots and leaves of A. calamus have shown antioxidant, antimicrobial and insecticidal activities.

Acorus calamus may prove to be an effective control measure against cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

A recent study showed that beta-asarone isolated from Acorus calamus oil inhibits adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells and thus reduces lipid accumulation in fat cells.

Chemistry

Both triploid and tetraploid A. calamus contain alpha-asarone. Other phytochemicals include:


Beta-asarone,
eugenol
Diploids do not contain beta-asarone (β-asarone).

Cultural symbolism


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The calamus has long been a symbol of love. The name is associated with a Greek myth: Kalamos, son of the river-god Maeander, who loved the youth Karpos, of Zephyrus (the West Wind) and Chloris (Spring). When Karpos drowned in a swimming race, Kalamos also drowned and was transformed into a reed, whose rustling in the wind was interpreted as a sigh of lamentation.

The plant was a favorite of Henry David Thoreau (who called it "sweet flag"), and also of Walt Whitman, who added a section called the "Calamus" poems, to the third edition of Leaves of Grass (1860). In the poems the calamus is used as a symbol of love, lust, and affection.

The root of the calamus (Tamil vasambu வசம்பு) is cut into disc-shaped beads, and made into bracelets, which are typically worn by newborns for the first few months. A vasambu bracelet is a symbol of a newborn baby in Tamil culture.

Safety and regulations

A. calamus and products derived from A. calamus (such as its oil) were banned from use as human food or as a food additive in 1968 by the United States Food and Drug Administration. The FDA ban was the result of lab studies that involved supplementing the diets of lab animals over a prolonged period of time with massive doses of isolated chemicals (β-asarone) from the Indian Jammu strain of calamus. The animals developed tumors, and the plant was labeled procarcinogenic. Wichtl says "It is not clear whether the observed carcinogenic effects in rats are relevant to the human organism." However, most sources advise caution in ingesting strains other than the diploid strain.

In reality β-asarone is neither hepatotoxic nor directly hepatocarcinogenic. It must first undergo metabolic l'-hydroxylation in the liver before achieving toxicity. Cytochrome P450 in the hepatocytes is responsible for secreting the hydrolyzing enzymes that convert β-asarone into genotoxic epoxide structure. Even with the activation of these metabolites, the carcinogenic potency is very low because of the rapid breakdown of epoxide residues with hydrolase which leaves these compounds inert. Additionally, the major metabolite of β-asarone is 2,4,5-trimethoxycinnamic acid, a derivative which is not a carcinogen.


source - Wikipedia

Acorus is a genus of monocot flowering plants. This genus was once placed within the family Araceae (aroids), but more recent classifications place it in its own family Acoraceae and order Acorales, of which it is the sole genus of the oldest surviving line of monocots. Some older studies indicated that was placed in a lineage (the order Alismatales), that also includes aroids (Araceae), Tofieldiaceae, and several families of aquatic monocots (e.g., Alismataceae, Posidoniaceae). However, modern phylogenetic studies demonstrate that Acorus is sister to all other monocots. Common names include Calamus and Sweet Flag.

The genus is native to North America and northern and eastern Asia, and naturalised in southern Asia and Europe from ancient cultivation. The known wild populations are diploid except for some tetraploids in eastern Asia, while the cultivated plants are sterile triploids, probably of hybrid origin between the diploid and tetraploid forms.

Characteristics


Habit of Acorus calamus.
The inconspicuous flowers are arranged on a lateral spadix (a thickened, fleshy axis). Unlike aroids, there is no spathe (large bract, enclosing the spadix). The spadix is 4–10 cm long and is enclosed by the foliage. The bract can be ten times longer than the spadix. The leaves are linear with entire margin.

Taxonomy

Although the family Acoraceae was originally described in 1820, since then Acorus has traditionally been included in Araceae in most classification systems, as in the Cronquist system. The family has recently been resurrected as molecular systematic studies have shown that Acorus is not closely related to Araceae or any other monocot family, leading plant systematists to place the genus and family in its own order. This placement currently lacks support from traditional plant morphology studies, and some taxonomists still place it as a subfamily of Araceae, in the order Alismatales. The APG III system recognizes order Acorales, distinct from the Alismatales, and as the sister group to all other monocots. This relationship is confirmed by more recent phylogenetic studies.

In older literature and on many websites, there is still much confusion, with the name Acorus calamus equally but wrongfully applied to Acorus americanus (formerly Acorus calamus var. americanus).

As of July 2014, the Kew Checklist accepts only 2 species, one of which has three accepted varieties:

Acorus calamus L. – Common Sweet Flag; sterile triploid (3n = 36); probably of cultivated origin. It is native to Europe, temperate India and the Himalayas and southern Asia, widely cultivated and naturalised elsewhere.
Acorus calamus var. americanus Raf. - Canada, northern United States, Buryatiya region of Russia
Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser - Siberia, China, Russian Far East, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Himalayas, Indian Subcontinent, Indochina, Philippines, Indonesia
Acorus calamus var. calamus - Siberia, Russian Far east, Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, Himalayas; naturalized in Europe, North America, Java and New Guinea
Acorus gramineus Sol. ex Aiton – Japanese Sweet Flag or Grassy-leaved Sweet Flag; fertile diploid (2n = 18); - China, Himalayas, Japan, Korea, Indochina, Philippines, Primorye
Acorus from Europe, China and Japan have been planted in the United States.

The name 'acorus' is derived from the Greek word 'acoron', a name used by Dioscorides, which in turn was derived from 'coreon', meaning 'pupil', because it was used in herbal medicine as a treatment for inflammation of the eye.

Distribution and habitat

These plants are found in wetlands, particularly marshes, where they spread by means of thick rhizomes. Like many other marsh plants, they depend upon aerenchyma to transport oxygen to the rooting zone. They frequently occur on shorelines and floodplains where water levels fluctuate seasonally.

Ecology


The native North American species appears in many ecological studies. Compared to other species of wetland plants, they have relatively high competitive ability. Although many marsh plants accumulate large banks of buried seeds, seed banks of Acorus may not accumulate in some wetlands owing to low seed production. The seeds appear to be adapted to germinate in clearings; after a period of cold storage, the seeds will germinate after seven days of light with fluctuating temperature, and somewhat longer under constant temperature. A comparative study of its life history traits classified it as a "tussock interstitial", that is, a species that has a dense growth form and tends to occupy gaps in marsh vegetation, not unlike Iris versicolor.

Toxicity


Sweet Flag (2006 drawing by USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center)
Products derived from Acorus calamus were banned in 1968 as food additives by the United States Food and Drug Administration. The questionable chemical derived from the plant was β-asarone. Confusion exists whether all strains of A. calamus contain this substance.

Four varieties of A. calamus strains exist in nature: diploid, triploid, tetraploid and hexaploid. Diploids do not produce the carcinogenic β-asarone. Diploids are known to grow naturally in Eastern Asia (Mongolia and C Siberia) and North America. The triploid cytotype probably originated in the Himalayan region, as a hybrid between the diploid and tetraploid cytotypes. The North American Calamus is known as Acorus calamus var. americanus or more recently as simply Acorus americanus. Like the diploid strains of A. calamus in parts of the Himalayas, Mongolia, and C Siberia, the North American diploid strain does not contain the carcinogenic β-asarone. Research has consistently demonstrated that "β-asarone was not detectable in the North American spontaneous diploid Acorus [Calamus var. Americanus]".

Uses

The parallel-veined leaves of some species contain ethereal oils that give a sweet scent when dried. Fine-cut leaves used to be strewn across the floor in the Middle Ages, both for the scent, and for presumed efficacy against pests.


Bibliography

Govaerts, R. & Frodin, D.G. (2002). World Checklist and Bibliography of Araceae and Acoraceae. 1-560. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Flora of North America: Acoraceae
Acorales in Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 7, May 2006.
NCBI Taxonomy Browser
Acoraceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards) The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. Version: 27 April 2006. http://delta-intkey.com.
Taxonomy and distribution of Acorus in Maine
Platt, Karen. Gold Fever 2004 ISBN 978-0954576417
Phylogenetic analysis of rbcL sequences identifies Acorus calamus as the primal extant monocotyledon. Duvall 1993
Duvall, Melvin R.; Clegg, Michael T.; Chase, Mark W.; Clark, W. Dennis; Kress, W. John; Hills, Harold G.; Eguiarte, Luis E.; Smith, James F.; Gaut, Brandon S.; Zimmer, Elizabeth A.; Learn, Gerald H. (1 January 1993). "Phylogenetic Hypotheses for the Monocotyledons Constructed from rbcL Sequence Data". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 80 (3): 607–619. doi:10.2307/2399849.
Analysis of Acorus calamus Chloroplast Genome and Its Phylogenetic Implications Vadim V. Goremykin 2005
Givnish, Thomas J.; Ames, Mercedes; McNeal, Joel R.; McKain, Michael R.; Steele, P. Roxanne; dePamphilis, Claude W.; Graham, Sean W.; Pires, J. Chris; Stevenson, Dennis W.; Zomlefer, Wendy B.; Briggs, Barbara G.; Duvall, Melvin R.; Moore, Michael J.; Heaney, J. Michael; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Thiele, Kevin; Leebens-Mack, James H. (27 December 2010). "Assembling the Tree of the Monocotyledons: Plastome Sequence Phylogeny and Evolution of Poales". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 97 (4): 584–616. doi:10.3417/2010023.
Soltis, D. E.; Smith, S. A.; Cellinese, N.; Wurdack, K. J.; Tank, D. C.; Brockington, S. F.; Refulio-Rodriguez, N. F.; Walker, J. B.; Moore, M. J.; Carlsward, B. S.; Bell, C. D.; Latvis, M.; Crawley, S.; Black, C.; Diouf, D.; Xi, Z.; Rushworth, C. A.; Gitzendanner, M. A.; Sytsma, K. J.; Qiu, Y.-L.; Hilu, K. W.; Davis, C. C.; Sanderson, M. J.; Beaman, R. S.; Olmstead, R. G.; Judd, W. S.; Donoghue, M. J.; Soltis, P. S. (8 April 2011). "Angiosperm phylogeny: 17 genes, 640 taxa". American Journal of Botany. 98 (4): 704–730. doi:10.3732/ajb.1000404.
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Acorus.
v
t
e
Close up view of wheat Orders of Monocotyledons
Alismatid monocots
Acorales
Alismatales
Lilioid monocots
Asparagales
Dioscoreales
Liliales
Pandanales
Petrosaviales
Commelinids
Arecales
Commelinales
Poales
Zingiberales
Dasypogonaceae
Taxon Identifiers
EoL: 29678
GBIF: 2730063
Tropicos: 40031097
ITIS: 42522
NCBI: 4464
IPNI: 2667-1
GRIN: 113
FNA: 100307
FOC: 100307
PLANTS: ACORU
AFPD: 187723

source - Wikipedia

Aegilops cylindrica, also known as jointed goatgrass. is an annual grass seed that is part of the tribe Triticeae, along with wheat and some other cereals. It is not native to the United States, however it has become a serious issue as a weed since it was introduced in the late 19th century. Due to its relation to winter wheat, it is very difficult to control. Not only are the joints similar in shape and size to the seeds of winter wheat, making it difficult to remove through grain cleaning methods, the shared genetics mean that no registered herbicides are available to single out jointed goatgrass while leaving winter wheat unharmed. This poses problems for farmers who have to suffer through reduced yields and poorer quality winter wheat.

History and Distribution

Jointed goatgrass is a winter annual grass seed native to Southern Europe and Russia, however currently there are at least 23 species distributed worldwide. It is considered a problem weed in United States, where it is now widely spread across western and central regions. It entered the US at several different times and at different locations, however the first was possibly in the late 19th century when Mennonite settlers from Russia brought Turkey winter wheat to Kansas. The first sample of jointed goatgrass was collected in Centerville, DE in 1870 and later samples collected in 1910 showed that jointed goatgrass had escaped from experimental plots on South Dakota State University campus at Brookings, SD. In 1999, it was reported that jointed goatgrass had infested an estimated 2 million hectares in the US alone, and that this was annually increasing at a rate of about 20 000 hectares. In 1986, jointed goatgrass had been reported as having infected less than 1% of winter wheat fields in seven counties in Nebraska, yet it was rated one of the ten most troublesome weeds, concerning 13% of respondents to a 1984 farmer survey.

Human activities, wind, and machinery help to spread jointed goatgrass seeds once the joints disarticulate. However, due to the size of joints, wind dispersal is not as effective at spreading jointed goatgrass. Some of the human activities that helped spread jointed goatgrass include; planting contaminated wheat, allowing joints to blow from passing trucks hauling grain, transporting combines to different fields, or using straw spreaders on combines. Steven Miller argued that some states did not have laws that prevented contaminated winter wheat from being certified, which helped lead to it still being planted. Combines with straw spreaders are likely to spread jointed goatgrass joints farther than combines without these spreaders. Also, because the joints can float, runoff from fields can take them into rivers where they can aggregate and create an infestation in moist depressions, draws in fields, or along drainageways. It has been observed by growers and researchers that jointed goatgrass has a higher germination and emergence rate in compacted soils (such as in the wheel tracts of tractors) than in looser soils.

Biology


Jointed goatgrass and winter wheat are genetically linked through a D genome which allows them to live in cold, continental climates and means they are capable of cross-breeding. They are both C3 plants, have similar phenology and growth rates and even germinate at the same time. Jointed goatgrass has glabrous to scabrous glumes with upright culms and the ability to produce 50 erect flowering stalks for each isolated plant. Both wheat and jointed goatgrass have spikes that are sessile and alternately arranged spikelets on opposite sides of the rachis. Each spikelet holds one to two seeds, and in some cases three, that are reddish-brown in colour and reach maturity in mid-summer which is when the spikelets shatter. These seeds adhere to the lemma and palea of the glume, so that removing the seeds from the joints is difficult.

Agricultural Issues

Jointed goatgrass can reduce the yield of winter wheat by 25 – 50% which can cost US farmers up to $145 million. Another problem is that winter wheat provides an overwinter home for winter wheat attacking pests such as Russian wheat aphid, leaf spot, pink mold, foot rot, dwarf bunt, fron, root browning, damping off, and kernel bunt.

When the spikes shatter, the disjointed spikelets are cylindrical in shape and are easily mistaken for small pieces of winter wheat straw. Since the spikelets are similar in shape and size to winter wheat seeds, it is difficult to separate them from the wheat using conventional methods. Better methods use length graders or weight tables, but these are slow and costly to operate. The Official United States Standards for Grain states that when the spikelets get mixed in with the winter wheat, the wheat is considered contaminated and the grade is reduced, resulting in a penalty. The more jointed goatgrass found in the wheat, the lower the grade and the larger the penalty. The lowest penalty is $0.02 per bushel while the highest is $0.15 per bushel.

Benefits

Jointed goatgrass does have some benefits in the sense that its germplasm can be used in winter wheat to improve its tolerance to environmental stresses, diseases and insects. Cattle in parts of the Central Great Plains are able to graze on it as well as winter wheat, and jointed goatgrass can even be ground into feed for other animals.

Solutions


Since jointed goatgrass and winter wheat are genetically related, there are no registered herbicides that can selectively kill off the jointed goatgrass without harming the winter wheat. However, Newhouse et al. looked at the development of an imidazolinone resistant strain of winter wheat which allows the use of imazamox to kill jointed goatgrass, but Seefeldt et al. mentioned the concerns about the possibility of resistant jointed goatgrass – winter wheat hybrids.

This has resulted in a demand for other methods for controlling jointed goatgrass. These include planting only certified winter wheat seed that is free of jointed goatgrass, covering trucks that are transporting contaminated winter wheat, cleaning combines before moving them to a new field, allowing combines to enter each field through one spot only so possible infestations can be localized, using combines that lack straw or chaff spreaders, mowing jointed goatgrass found along roadsides, fields or waste areas, as well as using cultural practices. These cultural practices include fallowing for one or more growth seasons, long-term crop rotations which would mean growing winter wheat only once every three to four years, and delaying seed planting so that seedbed preparations will destroy jointed goatgrass seedlings (although this may also reduce the yield of winter wheat). These practices are not completely effective since jointed goatgrass seeds are able to persist and can stay in dormancy for up to five years. The best solution is to use several cultural tactics throughout the life cycle of jointed goatgrass and at a minimum of three different decision times (during the interval between winter wheat crops, before planting winter wheat, after planting but before winter wheat jointing, and before harvesting).

Other cultural practices include burning the residue after harvest and deep moldboard plowing, although Ball et al. point out that these methods can reduce air quality, increase soil erosion, decrease soil productivity and result in lost organic matter.

Another option for the control of jointed goatgrass is to use deleterious rhizobacteria (DRB) which scientists have already proven can suppress other weeds. However, the success of DRB depends upon its ability to survive which is affected by environmental factors such as soil series, temperature, moisture, and sunlight exposure. The goal for DRB is for it to be a low-cost, effective method for the control of jointed goatgrass with minimum damage to the environment.


source - Wikipedia

Aegilops triuncialis drawing from Manual of the grasses of the United States, Hitchcock, A.S (1950)

Spikelets of the barbed goatgrass, containing seeds, that become attached to animals, humans, and vehicles, so aiding in the spread of the plant.

Close-up of flowering spike of Barbed Goatgrass

Aegilops triuncialis occurring along roadsides at the base of the Carson Range, Nevada
Aegilops triuncialis, or barbed goatgrass, is a winter annual grass species of the Poaceae family. It is native to many areas in Eastern and Mediterranean Europe and Western Asia. It is considered an introduced, invasive species in North America, mainly in the Western coast of the United States. In its native lands, the grass thrives in mainly rocky, serpentine soil, but also does well in grasslands and ruderal/disturbed ground as well as oak woodlands.

Description

Barbed goatgrass grows to be about 8 to 16 inches tall with few to many rigid, loosely erect aerial stems (culms). In late spring the plant produces rigid flower spikes consisting of three to six spikelets bearing long, stiff awns which assist in seed distribution. When the grass matures, the spikelets fall off in their entirety to germinate on the ground, and the long awns which give the plant its name assist in dispersal by animals, wind or water.

As an invasive species

Barbed goatgrass was introduced to North America in the 20th century from Mediterranean Europe and Western Asia. It has been found in California, Oregon, Nevada, and the New England area, but with the greatest impact in California. Barbed goatgrass was introduced to the California area with the trade of Mexican cattle in the early 20th century. The plant's unusual ability to invade nutrient-depleted, infertile soils means that it can severely damage habitats which often serve as important refugia for endemic grassland species which most other invading grasses are unable to exploit.

Barbed goatgrass is a fast-growing, rapidly spreading invasive species mainly in grasslands, pastures, and ranches. It is listed as a noxious weed by California Department of Food and Agriculture. Because of its fast, invasive growing patterns, barbed goatgrass creates a monoculture, killing the other plants in its area. The invasive nature of barbed goatgrass is causing a decrease in species diversity, and a decrease in forage. Most grazing animals tend to avoid barbed goatgrass because they do not like the taste of it, allowing the grass to take over the other grasses and grains consumed by the animals. The barbs on the flower spikelets containing the seeds become attached easily to animal fur, human clothing, and vehicles which allows the seeds to become more widely dispersed over the area.


Control methods

The most important component in the control of barbed goatgrass is early detection. When found in small isolated areas, it can be taken care of more effectively. Controlled burning is one method being used by the University of California in small areas to try and control the amount of barbed goatgrass. To be most effective, multiple burns had to be put in place in the isolated area over two years to more fully rid the area of the grass. After the burns, many native species were able to live in the small area once again.

Another control method, used by both the University of California and the Weed Science Society of America to control barbed goatgrass, is the spraying of glyphosate. Used over a two-year period in small areas, glyphosate was able kill barbed goatgrass and all its seedlings. Although the chemical is effective in killing barbed goatgrass, it also kills the other plants in the area. Aminocyclopyrachlor, a new experimental chemical is being used to control barbed goatgrass by the University of California's Weed Science department. It has been shown to be extremely effective, however, aminocyclopyrachlor is not a registered herbicide and as such, widespread use is not yet allowed.

Mowing of the grass is another control method. It allows the grass to be cut before maturing and developing seeds to reproduce, but it is not as effective as the other methods as the deep and established root system of the barbed goatgrass is still in place and can grow again.

Impact on humans

Although there are many ways to control the growth of barbed goatgrass, a real solution has not been found in its widespread prevention. Barbed goatgrass cross breeds with different types of wheat, causing the grain to become infertile and unusable for harvest, which hurts the economy of the rural California areas. It can also seriously harm grazing animals by the barbs becoming embedded in their nose, mouth, and eyes, causing farmers and ranchers extra expenses. It reduces the amount of forage in the area, decreases biodiversity and overall degrades the ecosystem it resides in. Studies of the University of California also show that if climate change increased the amount of precipitation in the area, the amount of barbed goatgrass may increase, destroying even more of its ecosystem. Its rapid growth and resiliency against control methods prove that barbed goatgrass is an invasive species that could cause many more problems to the agriculture of California and possibly many other areas if it is not taken care of soon.


source - Wikipedia

Aegilops is a genus of Eurasian and North American plants in the grass family, Poaceae. They are known generally as goatgrasses. Some species are known as invasive weeds in parts of North America.

Description

These are annual plants, sometimes from rhizomes. The taller species reach about 80 centimeters in maximum height. The flat leaves are linear to narrowly lance-shaped, and are up to 15 centimeters long and one wide. The inflorescence is a spike with 2 to 12 solitary spikelets each up to 1.2 centimeters long. Some spikelets have one or three awns, and some have none.

Wheat

Genus Aegilops has played an important role in the taxonomy of wheat. The familiar common wheat (Triticum aestivum) arose when cultivated emmer wheat hybridized with Aegilops tauschii about 8,000 years ago. Aegilops and Triticum are genetically similar, as evidenced by their ability to hybridize, and by the presence of Aegilops in the evolutionary heritage of many Triticum taxa. Aegilops is sometimes treated within Triticum. They are maintained as separate genera by most authorities because of their ecological characteristics, and because when united they do not form a monophyletic group.

Ecology


Some Aegilops are known as weeds. A. cylindrica, which is commonly known as jointed goatgrass, infests wheat fields, where it outcompetes wheat plants, reducing yields. Its seeds mix with wheat grains at harvest, lowering the quality of the crop. It can also harbor pests such as the Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) and pathogenic fungi. Other Aegilops are weeds of rangeland and wildland habitat.

Prehistoric use as a wild food source

During the Mesolithic era, nomadic peoples found goatgrasses (Aegilops) growing wild, along with wild wheats and barleys, and harvested them using bone sickles inset with sharp flakes of flint. The harvested plants were left to dry for a few days, then the edible grains were separated out from the rest of the plant material by beating the plants with a wooden flail, or by rolling them against a hard surface. The seeds were then carefully singed in the embers of a fire to burn away the remaining non-edible plant material. Some grains were accidentally burnt, and since the burnt grains do not biodegrade some have been found by modern archeologists.

Etymology

The genus name Aegilops comes from the Greek aegilos, which could mean "a goat", "goatlike", "a herb liked by goats", or perhaps "a grass similar to that liked by goats".

Species


Aegilops tauschii
Accepted Species
Aegilops bicornis - Egypt, Libya, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Jordan, Israel Kuwait
Aegilops caudata - Balkans, Middle East
Aegilops columnaris - Middle East
Aegilops comosa - Greece, Turkey
Aegilops crassa – Persian goatgrass - Middle East to Central Asia
Aegilops cylindrica – jointed goatgrass - from Czech Republic to Pakistan
Aegilops geniculata - from Portugal + Canary Islands to Iran
Aegilops × insulae-cypri - Cyprus
Aegilops juvenalis - from Turkey to Kazakhstan
Aegilops kotschyi – ovate goatgrass - from Tunisia to Uzbekistan
Aegilops longissima - Middle East, Egypt
Aegilops lorentii - from Spain + Cape Verde to Iran
Aegilops mutica - Turkey, Transcaucasus
Aegilops neglecta – three-awned goatgrass - from Portugal + Canary Islands to Kazakhstan
Aegilops peregrina - from Morocco to Iran
Aegilops searsii - Syria, Jordan
Aegilops sharonensis - Israel
Aegilops speltoides - from Greece to Iran
Aegilops tauschii - from Crimea to Henan
Aegilops triuncialis – barbed goatgrass - from Portugal + Morocco to Kazakhstan
Aegilops umbellulata - from Crimea to Iran
Aegilops uniaristata - Italy, Balkans, Turkey, Caucasus
Aegilops vavilovii - from Caucasus to Saudi Arabia
Aegilops ventricosa - from Morocco + Balearic Islands to Caucasus


Formerly included species
Species once regarded as members of Aegilops but now considered better suited to other genera: Ctenium, Dactyloctenium, Elymus, Eremochloa, Ophiuros, Parapholis, Rottboellia, and Triticum

Aegilops aromatica - Ctenium aromaticum
Aegilops ciliaris - Eremochloa pectinata
Aegilops crithodium - Triticum monococcum subsp. aegilopoides
Aegilops exaltata - Ophiuros exaltatus
Aegilops fluviatilis - Rottboellia cochinchinensis
Aegilops hordeiformis - Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum
Aegilops hystrix - Elymus elymoides
Aegilops incurva - Parapholis incurva
Aegilops muricata - Eremochloa muricata
Aegilops saccharina - Dactyloctenium aegyptium

source - Wikipedia

Aeluropus is a genus of Eurasian and African plants in the grass family, found primarily in desert regions.

Species
Aeluropus badghyzii Tzvelev - Turkmenistan
Aeluropus laciniatus Khodash. - Iran
Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Thwaites - Mediterranean, Sahara, and Asia from Mauritania + Sicily to Kazakhstan + Nicobar Islands
Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl. - Mediterranean + Asia from Spain + Morocco to China
Aeluropus macrostachyus Hack. - Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan
Aeluropus pilosus (X.L.Yang) S.L.Chen & X.L.Yang - Xinjiang
formerly included
see Dactylis Odyssea

Aeluropus arabicus - Odyssea mucronata
Aeluropus mucronatus - Odyssea mucronata
Aeluropus pungens (Vahl) Boiss 1884 not K.Koch 1848 - Odyssea mucronata
Aeluropus smithii - Dactylis smithii
^ a b c Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant families
^ Watson L, Dallwitz MJ. (2008). "The grass genera of the world: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval; including synonyms, morphology, anatomy, physiology, phytochemistry, cytology, classification, pathogens, world and local distribution, and references". The Grass Genera of the World. Retrieved 2009-08-19.
^ Grassbase - The World Online Grass Flora
^ Trinius, Carl Bernhard von 1820. Fundamenta agrostographiae, sive Theoria constuctionis floris graminei; adjecta synopsi generum graminum hucusque cognitorum page 143 description in Latin
^ Trinius, Carl Bernhard von 1820. Fundamenta agrostographiae, sive Theoria constuctionis floris graminei; adjecta synopsi generum graminum hucusque cognitorum plate XII (12) line drawings of Aeluropus laevis (syn of A. lagopoides); captions on page 212
^ The Plant List search for Aeluropus
^ Flora of China Vol. 22 Page 458 獐毛属 zhang mao shu Aeluropus Trinius, Fund. Agrost. 143. 1820.
^ Altervista Flora Italiana, genere Aeluropus

source - Wikipedia

Agropyron is a genus of Eurasian plants in the grass family), native to Europe and Asia but widely naturalized in North America.

Species in the genus are commonly referred to as wheatgrass.

Species
Agropyron badamense - Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan
Agropyron bulbosum - Iran
Agropyron cimmericum - Ukraine, Crimea
Agropyron cristatum - Crested wheatgrass - Eurasia + North Africa from Spain + Morocco to Korea + Khabarovsk; naturalized in western + central North America (United States, Canada, northern Mexico)
Agropyron dasyanthum - Ukraine
Agropyron desertorum - Desert Wheatgrass - from Crimea + Caucasus to Mongolia + Siberia
Agropyron deweyi - Turkey
Agropyron fragile - Siberian wheatgrass - from Caucasus to Mongolia; naturalized in scattered locales in western United States + Canada
Agropyron michnoi - Buryatiya, Zabaykalsky Krai, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia
Agropyron mongolicum - Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Xinjiang
Agropyron × pilosiglume - European Russia
Agropyron tanaiticum - Ukraine, European Russia
Agropyron thomsonii - Western Himalayas
formerly included
species now considered better suited in other genera: Crithopsis Elymus Kengyilia Leymus Thinopyrum Vulpia etc.


source - Wikipedia

Agrostis avenacea is a species of grass known by the common names Pacific bent grass, New Zealand wind grass, fairy grass, or blown-grass. It is native to Australia, New Zealand, and other Pacific Islands including New Guinea and Easter Island.

Pacific bent grass is a tufted perennial grass growing up to 65 centimeters tall. The inflorescence is a panicle of wispy strands, each with several tiny, fuzzy spikelets at the end. The spikelets are two or three millimeters long.

In Australia it is a fire hazard, and interferes with trains.

Agrostis avenacea is known elsewhere as an introduced species and sometimes a noxious weed. It is particularly invasive in California, where it is a weed of sensitive vernal pool ecosystems around San Diego.


source - Wikipedia

Agrostis canina, known as brown bent or velvet bent, is a species of grass.

Description


Inflorescence
Agrostis canina is a perennial plant, with stolons but no rhizomes, and culms which grow to a height of up to 75 centimetres (30 in). It is frequently confused with Agrostis vinealis (formerly treated as a subspecies or variety of A. canina), which grows in more upland habitats and has rhizomes rather than stolons.

The leaf blades are 2–15 cm (0.8–5.9 in) long and 1–3 mm (0.04–0.12 in) wide, with an acute or acuminate ligule up to 4 mm (0.16 in) long.

The plant flowers from May to July, and the inflorescence is a panicle 3–16 cm (1.2–6.3 in) long and up to 7 cm (2.8 in) wide, with rough branches. Each spikelet is 1.9–2.5 mm (0.07–0.10 in) long; the lemma is 1.6 mm (0.063 in) long with an awn attached around the middle.

Distribution and ecology

The range of Agrostis canina covers most of Europe and temperate parts of Asia, and extends from sea level to the alpine zone. It has also been introduced to eastern North America, Hawaiʻi, Algeria, the Kerguelen Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

Agrostis canina is sensitive to drought, but is common in damp places, including ditches and lake margins.

The short, green growth of A. canina has made it popular as a lawn grass.


source - Wikipedia

Agrostis capillaris (Common Bent, Colonial bent, Browntop) is a rhizomatous and stoloniferous perennial in the grass family (Poaceae). It is native to Eurasia and has been widely introduced in many parts of the world. Colonial bent grows in moist grasslands and open meadows, and can also be found in agricultural areas, roadsides, and invading disturbed areas.

The name agrostis comes from the Greek word meaning forage plant, agros meaning 'a field'.

It is found growing in neutral to acidic soils. It has a very fine texture and like most bent grasses grows very dense. Although this species is used on golf courses, providing some of the best ball playing surfaces in the world, it also produces a spectacular visual appearance when maintained properly. It provides an excellent home lawn but is not tolerant of heavy use. Colonial Bent is fairly easy to grow from seeds and fertilization of the lawn is not as intense. This grass also takes longer to establish than Creeping Bent. However it does not require the intense maintenance.

Many internet sources describe it as being the tallest of the bent species. However C E Hubbard describes its height as ranging from 10 to 70 cm high, whereas the Black Bent Agrostis gigantea is 40 to 120 cm. Marjorie Blamey, Richard and Alastair Fitter also describe Black Bent as being taller.

Description

It forms a dense sward of fine leaves. The ligule is short and does not come to a point. This differs from Creeping Bent, Agrostis stolonifera which is pointed and up to 5mm long.

The flowering panicles appear from May until June. They are finely branched and look like a purple haze from a distance. The panicle persists in winter after the seeds have been shed.

Environmental Conservation

Agrostis capillaris forms a constituent of Purple moor grass and rush pastures- a type of Biodiversity Action Plan habitat in the UK. This habitat occurs on poorly drained neutral and acidic soils of the lowlands and upland fringe, and can be found in the South West of England, especially in Devon.It is found on upland pastures throughout the UK.


source - Wikipedia

Agrostis (bent or bentgrass) is a large and very nearly cosmopolitan genus of plants in the grass family, found in nearly all the countries in the world. It has been bred as a GMO creeping bent grass.

Species

Agrostis aequivalvi (Arctic bent)
Agrostis agrostiflora
Agrostis alpina
Agrostis ambatoensis
Agrostis × amurensis
Agrostis anadyrensis
Agrostis angrenica
Agrostis arvensis
Agrostis atlantica
Agrostis australiensis
Agrostis bacillata
Agrostis balansae
Agrostis barceloi
Agrostis basalis
Agrostis bergiana
Agrostis bettyae
Agrostis × bjoerkmannii
Agrostis blasdalei
Agrostis boliviana
Agrostis boormanii
Agrostis bourgaei
Agrostis boyacensis
Agrostis brachiata
Agrostis brachyathera
Agrostis breviculmis
Agrostis burmanica
Agrostis calderoniae
Agrostis canina (velvet bent)
Agrostis capillaris (common bent, browntop)
Agrostis carmichaelii
Agrostis castellana (highland bent)
Agrostis × castriferrei
Agrostis clavata (northern bent)
Agrostis × clavatiformis
Agrostis clemensorum
Agrostis comorensis
Agrostis congestiflora
Agrostis continuata
Agrostis curtisii (bristle bent)
Agrostis cypricola
Agrostis decaryana
Agrostis delicatula
Agrostis delislei
Agrostis densiflora (California bent)
Agrostis diemenica
Agrostis dimorpholemma
Agrostis divaricatissima
Agrostis dshungarica
Agrostis durieui
Agrostis dyeri
Agrostis elliotii
Agrostis elliottiana
Agrostis emirnensis
Agrostis eriantha
Agrostis exarata (spike bent)
Agrostis exserta
Agrostis filipes
Agrostis flaccida
Agrostis foliata
Agrostis × fouilladeana
Agrostis gelida
Agrostis ghiesbreghtii
Agrostis gigantea (black bent, redtop)
Agrostis × gigantifera
Agrostis glabra (J.Presl)
Agrostis goughensis
Agrostis gracilifolia
Agrostis gracililaxa
Agrostis griffithiana
Agrostis hallii
Agrostis × hegetschweileri
Agrostis hendersonii
Agrostis hesperica
Agrostis hideoi
Agrostis hirta
Agrostis holgateana
Agrostis hookeriana
Agrostis hooveri
Agrostis howellii
Agrostis hugoniana
Agrostis humbertii
Agrostis humilis
Agrostis hyemalis (winter bent)
Agrostis hygrometrica
Agrostis idahoensis
Agrostis imbecilla
Agrostis imberbis
Agrostis inaequiglumis
Agrostis inconspicua
Agrostis infirma
Agrostis innominata
Agrostis insularis
Agrostis isopholis
Agrostis jahnii
Agrostis joyceae
Agrostis juressii
Agrostis keniensis
Agrostis kilimandscharica
Agrostis koelerioides
Agrostis kolymensis
Agrostis korczaginii
Agrostis lacuna-vernalis
Agrostis laxissima
Agrostis lazica
Agrostis lehmannii
Agrostis lenis
Agrostis leptotricha
Agrostis liebmannii
Agrostis longiberbis
Agrostis mackliniae
Agrostis magellanica
Agrostis mannii
Agrostis marojejyensis
Agrostis masafuerana
Agrostis media
Agrostis mertensii (Arctic bent)
Agrostis merxmuelleri
Agrostis meyenii
Agrostis micrantha
Agrostis microphylla
Agrostis montevidensis
Agrostis muelleriana
Agrostis munroana
Agrostis × murbeckii
Agrostis muscosa
Agrostis musjidii
Agrostis nebulosa
Agrostis nervosa
Agrostis nevadensis
Agrostis nevskii
Agrostis nipponensis
Agrostis novogaliciana
Agrostis × novograblenovii
Agrostis olympica
Agrostis oregonensis
Agrostis oresbia
Agrostis pallens (dune bent, seashore bent)
Agrostis pallescens
Agrostis × paramushirensis
Agrostis parviflora
Agrostis paulsenii
Agrostis peninsularis
Agrostis perennans (upland bent)
Agrostis personata
Agrostis peschkovae
Agrostis petriei
Agrostis philippiana
Agrostis pilgeriana
Agrostis pilosula
Agrostis pittieri
Agrostis platensis
Agrostis pleiophylla
Agrostis pourretii
Agrostis producta
Agrostis propinqua
Agrostis quinqueseta
Agrostis reuteri
Agrostis rosei
Agrostis rossiae
Agrostis rupestris
Agrostis salaziensis
Agrostis salsa
Agrostis sandwicensis
Agrostis × sanionis
Agrostis scabra (rough bent, tickle bent)
Agrostis scabrifolia
Agrostis schaffneri
Agrostis schleicheri
Agrostis schmidii
Agrostis sclerophylla
Agrostis serranoi
Agrostis sesquiflora
Agrostis sichotensis
Agrostis sikkimensis
Agrostis sinocontracta
Agrostis sinorupestris
Agrostis × stebleri
Agrostis stolonifera (creeping bent)
Agrostis × subclavata
Agrostis subpatens
Agrostis subrepens
Agrostis subulata
Agrostis subulifolia
Agrostis tandilensis (Kennedy's bent)
Agrostis tateyamensis
Agrostis taylorii
Agrostis tenerrima
Agrostis thompsoniae
Agrostis thurberiana
Agrostis tibestica
Agrostis tileni
Agrostis tolucensis
Agrostis × torgesii
Agrostis trachychlaena
Agrostis trachyphylla
Agrostis trichodes
Agrostis trisetoides
Agrostis tsaratananensis
Agrostis tsiafajavonensis
Agrostis tsitondroinensis
Agrostis turrialbae
Agrostis tuvinica
Agrostis uliginosa
Agrostis umbellata
Agrostis ushae
Agrostis × ussuriensis
Agrostis variabilis (mountain bent)
Agrostis venezuelana
Agrostis venusta
Agrostis vidalii
Agrostis vinealis (brown bent)
Agrostis virescens
Agrostis volkensii
Agrostis wacei
Agrostis zenkeri
Formerly included

Hundreds of species were listed in the Agrostis genus, but are now considered better suited to other genera: Achnatherum, Aira, Alloteropsis, Apera, Arundinella, Calamagrostis, Chaetopogon, Chionochloa, Chloris, Cinna, Colpodium, Crypsis, Cynodon, Deschampsia, Dichelachne, Digitaria, Eremochloa, Eriochloa, Eustachys, Gastridium, Graphephorum, Gymnopogon, Lachnagrostis, Leptochloa, Muhlenbergia, Pentameris, Phippsia, Piptatherum, Poa, Polypogon, Puccinellia, Reimarochloa, Relchela, Schismus, Sporobolus and Zingeria.

Uses

Some species of bents are commonly used for lawn grass. This is a desirable grass for golf course tees, fairways and greens.

Bentgrass is used in turf applications for its numerous advantages: it can be mowed to a very short length without damage, it can handle a great amount of foot traffic, it has a shallow root system that is thick and dense allowing it to be seeded and grow rather easily, and it has a pleasing, deep green appearance. The name "bent" refers to the shallow roots, which bend just below the surface of the soil to propagate laterally.[citation needed]

(Agrostis stolonifera) is the most commonly used species of Agrostis. Historically, it was often called Orcheston long grass, after a village on Salisbury Plain, England. It is cultivated almost exclusively on golf courses, especially on putting greens. Creeping bent aggressively produces horizontal stems, called stolons, that run along the soil's surface. These allow creeping bent to form dense stands under conducive conditions and outcompete bunch-type grass and broadleaf weeds. As such, if infested in a home lawn, it can become a troublesome weed problem. The leaves of the bentgrass are long and slender.[citation needed]

Creeping bentgrass has been genetically engineered to be glyphosate tolerant, as "one of the first wind-pollinated, perennial, and highly outcrossing transgenic crops". In 2003 the Scotts Company planted it as part of a large (about 160 ha) field trial in central Oregon near Madras, Oregon. In 2004, its pollen was found to have reached wild growing bentgrass populations up to 14 kilometres away. Cross-pollinating Agrostis gigantea was even found at a distance of 21 kilometres. The grower could not remove all genetically engineered plants and in 2007, the U.S. Department of Agriculture fined the grower $500 thousand for non compliance with regulations in 2007.

(Agrostis capillaris or Colonial bent) was brought to America from Europe. This was the type of grass that was used on the lawns of most estates. It is the tallest of the bents with very fine texture and like most bent grasses grows very dense. Although this species has been used on golf courses and sporting fields it is better suited for lawns. Colonial bent is fairly easy to grow from seeds and fertilization of the lawn is not as intense. This grass also takes longer to establish than creeping bent. However it does not require the intense maintenance.[citation needed]

(Agrostis canina) gets it name for the velvet appearance that this grass produces. It has the finest texture of all the bent grasses. This grass was used in Europe for estate lawns and golf courses because it could be cut so short. Velvet bent grass requires similar upkeep and maintenance to creeping bent. Velvet bent has recently had a resurgence in the UK due to the high demands on greens from inclement weather and speed expectations. This species also has a lighter color than the two previous species.[citation needed]

Butterfly food plant

Butterflies whose caterpillars feed on Agrostis include:

Zabulon skipper, Poanes zabulon

source - Wikipedia

For other uses, see Aira (disambiguation).
Aira is a genus of Old World plants in the grass family, native to western and southern Europe, central and southwest Asia, plus Africa.

The common name, shared with the similar related genera Deschampsia and Koeleria, is hair-grass, from the very slender leaves and stems. The species typically occur on dry, sandy sites, and grow to 20–40 cm tall.

Several species are grown as ornamental plants for their very delicate airy seed heads, used in dried flower arrangements.

Species
Aira caryophyllea - Europe, North Africa, alpine Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Caucasus, Tibet
Aira cupaniana - Canary Islands, Mediterranean
Aira elegantissima - Central Europe, Mediterranean, Iran, Caucasus
Aira × hybrida - Switzerland
Aira praecox - Europe, Canary Is, Turkey
Aira provincialis - France incl Corsica
Aira scoparia - Macedonia
Aira tenorei - Mediterranean
Aira uniaristata Portugal, Spain, Libya, Morocco
formerly included
Many species now considered better suited to other genera: Agrostis Antinoria Arundinella Arundo Catabrosa Colpodium Corynephorus Cyrtococcum Deschampsia Ehrharta Eragrostis Eremopoa Eriachne Eustachys Hierochloe Koeleria Molinia Pentameris Peyritschia Poa Puccinellia Rostraria Scolochloa Sesleria Sphenopholis Sporobolus Tricholaena Trisetum etc


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For the brachiopod genus, see Beckmannia (brachiopod).
Beckmannia is a small genus of grasses containing two species known generally as sloughgrass. Beckmannia eruciformis is a Eurasian perennial, and Beckmannia syzigachne is an annual grass found in North America and Asia. The genus was named for the German scientist Johann Beckmann.


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Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass) is one of two flowering plants native to Antarctica, the other being Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort).

They mainly occur on the South Orkney Islands, the South Shetland Islands, and along the western Antarctic Peninsula. A recent warming trend has increased germination, and thus number of seedlings and plants, also extending their range southward to cover larger areas; reports indicate a twenty-fivefold increase in their number.

Deschampsia antarctica has been recorded by the Guinness Book of World Records as the southernmost flowering plant. In 1981, a specimen was found on the Antarctic Peninsula's Refuge Islands at a latitude of 68°21′S.


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Deschampsia cespitosa, commonly known as tufted hairgrass or tussock grass is a perennial tufted plant in the grass family Poaceae. Distribution of this Deschampsia grass species is widespread including the eastern and western coasts of North America, parts of South America, Eurasia and Australia.

Description

It can be found on all types of grassland, although it prefers poorly drained soil. It forms a major component of the British NVC community MG9 - Holcus lanatus to Deschampsia cespitosa mesotrophic grasslands. It can exist up to altitudes of 4000 ft.

A distinguishing feature is the upper surface of the leaf blade which feels rough and can cut in one direction, but is smooth in the opposite direction. The upper side of the leaves are deeply grooved, and are dark green.

It can grow to 4.5 feet (1.5 Meters) tall, and has a long, narrow, pointed ligule.

It flowers from June until August.


Seed


Ligule is long and pointed

North America

Typical native grass associates in the western North American coastal prairies, such as the California coastal prairie, are Festuca californica, Festuca idahoensis, Danthonia californica, and Nassella pulchra.

Line notes

Jepson Manual. 1993. Jepson Manual Treatment: Deschampsia cespitosa

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