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Solenodons (meaning "slotted-tooth") are venomous, nocturnal, burrowing, insectivorous mammals belonging to the family Solenodontidae. Only one genus, Solenodon, is known, although a few other genera were erected at one time and are now regarded as junior synonyms. Solenodontidae is interesting to phylogenetics researchers because of its retention of primitive mammal characteristics; their species resemble very closely those that lived near the end of the age of the dinosaurs. In 2016, solenodons were confirmed by genetic analysis as predating the mass extinction of the dinosaurs. They are one of two families of Caribbean soricomorphs; it is uncertain whether the other family, Nesophontidae, which became extinct during the Holocene, was closely related to solenodons.

The two living solenodon species are the Cuban solenodon (Solenodon cubanus), and the Haitian or Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus). The Hispaniolan solenodon covers a wide range of habitats on the island of Hispaniola from lowland dry forest to highland pine forest. Two other described species became extinct during the Quaternary. Oligocene North American genera, such as Apternodus, have been suggested as relatives of Solenodon, but the origins of the animal remain obscure.

Characteristics


Cuban solenodon at New York Zoo
Solenodons resemble very large shrews, and are often compared to them; with extremely elongated cartilaginous snouts, long, naked, scaly tails, hairless feet, and small eyes. The Cuban solenodon is generally smaller than its Hispaniolan counterpart. It is also a rusty brown with black on its throat and back. The Hispaniolan solenodon is a darker brown with yellowish tint to the face. The snout is flexible and, in the Hispaniolan solenodon, actually has a ball-and-socket joint at the base to increase its mobility. This allows the animal to investigate narrow crevices where potential prey may be hiding. Solenodons are also noted for the glands in their inguinal and groin areas that secrete what is described as a musky, goat-like odor. Solenodons range from 28 to 32 cm (11 to 13 in) from nose to rump, and weigh between 0.7 and 1.0 kg (1.5 and 2.2 lb).

Solenodons have a few unusual traits, one of them being the position of the two teats on the female, almost on the buttocks of the animal, and another being the venomous saliva that flows from modified salivary glands in the mandible through grooves on the second lower incisors ("solenodon" derives from the Greek "grooved tooth"). Solenodons are among a handful of venomous mammals. Fossil records show that some other now-extinct mammal groups also had the dental venom delivery system, indicating that the solenodon's most distinct characteristic may have been a more general ancient mammalian characteristic that has been lost in most modern mammals and is only retained in a couple of very ancient lineages. The solenodon has often been called a "living fossil" because it has been around virtually unchanged for the past 76 million years.

It is not known exactly how long solenodons can live in the wild. However, certain individuals of the Cuban species have been recorded to have lived for up to five years in captivity and individuals of the Hispaniolan species for up to eleven years.[citation needed]

West Indian natives have long known about the venomous character of the solenodon bite. Scientific studies on the nature of the tiny mammal's saliva show that it is very similar to the neurotoxic venom of certain snakes. Solenodons create venom in enlarged submaxillary glands, and only inject venom through their bottom set of teeth. The symptoms of a solenodon bite include general depression, breathing difficulty, paralysis, and convulsions; large enough doses have resulted in death in lab studies on mice.

Their diets consist largely of insects, earthworms, and other invertebrates, but they also eat vertebrate carrion, and perhaps even some living vertebrate prey, such as small reptiles or amphibians. They have also been known to feed on fruits, roots, and vegetables. Based on observation of the solenodon in captivity, they have only been known to drink while bathing. Solenodons have a relatively unspecialised, and almost complete dentition, with a dental formula of:
3.1.3.3
3.1.3.3
.

Solenodons find food by sniffing the ground until they come upon their prey. If the prey is small enough, the solenodon will consume it immediately. After coming across the prey, the solenodon will bring the forelimbs up to either side of the prey and then move the head forward, opening the jaw and properly catching its prey.[citation needed] While sniffing for food, the solenodon can get through physical barriers with the help of its sharp claws.

There has been research that suggests that males and females of the two species have different eating habits. The female has a habit of scattering the food to make sure that no morsel of food is missed as it is foraging. The male was noted to use its tongue to lap up the food and using the lower jaw as a scoop. However, these specimens were studied in captivity, so these habits may not be found in the wild.

Reproduction

Solenodons give birth in a nesting burrow, to one or two young. The young remain with the mother for several months, and initially follow the mother about by hanging on to her elongated teats. Once they reach adulthood, solenodons are solitary animals, which rarely interact except to breed.

The reproductive rate of solenodons is relatively low; each year they will only produce two litters. Breeding has no specific time period and can occur at any time. Males will not aid in the care for the young. The mother will nurse her offspring using her two nipples, which are placed toward the back of the animal. However, if the litter consists of three offspring, one will become malnourished and die, due to a lack of feeding opportunity. The nursing period can last for up to seventy-five days.

Behavior

Solenodons make their homes in bushy areas in forests. During the daytime they seek refuge in caves, burrows, or hollow logs. They are easily provoked and will therefore fly into rages of biting and screaming without warning. They run and climb quite fast, despite only ever touching the ground with toes. Solenodons are said to give off grunts similar to that of a pig or bird-call when feeling threatened. As far as predation goes, solenodons use a series of clicking noises, which create sound waves that bounce back off of objects in its path. This form of echolocation is the main way in which a solenodon is able to navigate as well as find its food sources, because solenodons have extremely small eyes and poor vision. This well developed hearing combined with its above average sense of smell helps the solenodon survive despite its lack of visual adequacy.

Status

Both extant species are endangered due to predation by the small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus), which was introduced in colonial times to hunt snakes and rats, as well as by feral cats and dogs. The Cuban solenodon was thought to have been extinct until a live specimen was found in 2003. Marcano's solenodon (Solenodon marcanoi) became extinct in the Holocene. The Hispaniolan solenodon was also once thought to be extinct, probably more because of its secretive and elusive behavior than to low population numbers. Recent studies have proven that the species is widely distributed through the island of Hispaniola, but it does not tolerate habitat degradation.

A 1981 study of the Hispaniolan solenodon in Haiti found that the species was “functionally extinct”, with the exception of a small population in the area of Massif de la Hotte. A follow-up study, in 2007, noted that the solenodon was still thriving in the area, even though the region has had an increase in human population density in recent years.

Human activity has also had an adverse effect on the Solenodon population. Human development on Cuba and Hispaniola has resulted in fragmentation and habitat loss, further contributing to the reduction of the solenodon's range and numbers.

The Sierra de Bahoruco, a mountain range in the south-west of the Dominican Republic that straddles the border with Haiti, was examined by conservation teams looking for solenodons. The work occurred during the day when the animals were asleep in burrows so that they could be viewed with an infrared camera. When researchers search for solenodons in daylight, they look for the following clues to their presence:

Nearby nose-poke holes; holes that the creatures make in the ground with their long noses to probe the earth as they look for insects they can hunt and eat. After a relatively long period of time they will be covered in leaves, but a fresh hole will be covered in moist soil.
Nearby scratches in logs that were made with their long claws.
A strong musty goat-like smell seeping out of a burrow. The pungent odor indicates that the burrow is active and a solenodon may be present sleeping.
A solenodon was captured in 2008 during a month-long expedition in the Dominican Republic, thereby allowing researchers the rare opportunity to examine it in daylight. The Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Ornithological Society of Hispaniola were able to take measurements and DNA from the creature before it was released. It was the only trapping made from the entire month-long expedition. The new information gathered was significant because little information is known about its current ecology, its behavior, its population status, and its genetics, and without that knowledge it is difficult for researchers to design effective conservation.

Conservation

Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the solenodon was the apex predator on the island of Hispaniola. Consequently, the solenodon never evolved defense mechanisms, which is why it is so threatened by predators like dogs, cats, and mongooses. Snakes and birds of prey are also threats. The solenodon has no known negative effects on human populations. In addition, it serves as both pest control, helping ecosystems by keeping down the population of invertebrates, and a means of spreading fruit seeds.

Today, the solenodon is one of the last two surviving native insectivorous mammals found in the Caribbean, and one of the only two remaining endemic terrestrial mammal species of Hispaniola.

While the survival of the solenodon is uncertain, talk of conservation has been underway through the "Last Survivors Project", which has been collaborating with the Dominican government. In 2009, a five-year plan for conservation was funded which has been put in place to conduct field research, discover the best means by which to bring about their conservation, and organize monitoring tools to ensure their long-term survival.

One of the aims of the conservation efforts is to increase local awareness of the species, particularly in the Dominican Republic. The Ornithological Society of Hispaniola showed pictures of the solenodon to the locals in both countries, and few knew what they were due to their nocturnal nature.


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For other uses, see Platypus (disambiguation).
The platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), also known as the duck-billed platypus, is a semiaquatic egg-laying mammal endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Together with the four species of echidna, it is one of the five extant species of monotremes, the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth. The animal is the sole living representative of its family (Ornithorhynchidae) and genus (Ornithorhynchus), though a number of related species have been found in the fossil record.

The unusual appearance of this egg-laying, duck-billed, beaver-tailed, otter-footed mammal baffled European naturalists when they first encountered it, with some considering it an elaborate hoax. It is one of the few venomous mammals, the male platypus having a spur on the hind foot that delivers a venom capable of causing severe pain to humans. The unique features of the platypus make it an important subject in the study of evolutionary biology and a recognisable and iconic symbol of Australia; it has appeared as a mascot at national events and is featured on the reverse of its 20-cent coin. The platypus is the animal emblem of the state of New South Wales.

Until the early 20th century, it was hunted for its fur, but it is now protected throughout its range. Although captive breeding programs have had only limited success and the platypus is vulnerable to the effects of pollution, it is not under any immediate threat.

Taxonomy and etymology

When the platypus was first encountered by Europeans in 1798, a pelt and sketch were sent back to Great Britain by Captain John Hunter, the second Governor of New South Wales. British scientists' initial hunch was that the attributes were a hoax. George Shaw, who produced the first description of the animal in the Naturalist's Miscellany in 1799, stated it was impossible not to entertain doubts as to its genuine nature, and Robert Knox believed it might have been produced by some Asian taxidermist. It was thought that somebody had sewn a duck's beak onto the body of a beaver-like animal. Shaw even took a pair of scissors to the dried skin to check for stitches.

The common name "platypus" is the latinisation of the Greek word πλατύπους (platupous), "flat-footed", from πλατύς (platus), "broad, wide, flat" and πούς (pous), "foot". Shaw assigned the species the Linnaean name Platypus anatinus when he initially described it, but the genus term was quickly discovered to already be in use as the name of the wood-boring ambrosia beetle genus Platypus. It was independently described as Ornithorhynchus paradoxus by Johann Blumenbach in 1800 (from a specimen given to him by Sir Joseph Banks) and following the rules of priority of nomenclature, it was later officially recognised as Ornithorhynchus anatinus. The scientific name Ornithorhynchus anatinus is derived from ορνιθόρυγχος (ornithorhynkhos), which literally means "bird snout" in Greek; and anatinus, which means "duck-like" in Latin.

There is no universally agreed plural of "platypus" in the English language. Scientists generally use "platypuses" or simply "platypus". Colloquially, the term "platypi" is also used for the plural, although this is technically incorrect and a form of pseudo-Latin; the correct Greek plural would be "platypodes". Early British settlers called it by many names, such as "watermole", "duckbill", and "duckmole". The name platypus is often prefixed with the adjective "duck-billed" to form duck-billed platypus, which distinguishes the modern platypus from the extinct Riversleigh platypuses.

Description

Platypus in Broken River, Queensland
In David Collins's account of the new colony 1788 – 1801, he describes coming across "an amphibious, mole like" animal. His account includes a drawing of the animal.

The body and the broad, flat tail of the platypus are covered with dense, brown fur that traps a layer of insulating air to keep the animal warm. The fur is waterproof, and the texture is akin to that of a mole. The platypus uses its tail for storage of fat reserves (an adaptation also found in animals such as the Tasmanian devil and fat-tailed sheep). It has webbed feet and a large, rubbery duck-like snout. The webbing is more significant on the front feet and is folded back when walking on land. Unlike a bird's beak (in which the upper and lower parts separate to reveal the mouth), the snout of the platypus is a sensory organ with the mouth on the underside. The nostrils are located on the dorsal surface of the snout, while the eyes and ears are located in a groove set just back from it; this groove is closed when swimming. Platypuses have been heard to emit a low growl when disturbed and a range of other vocalisations have been reported in captive specimens.

A colour print of platypuses from 1863
Weight varies considerably from 0.7 to 2.4 kg (1.5 to 5.3 lb), with males being larger than females; males average 50 cm (20 in) in total length, while females average 43 cm (17 in), with substantial variation in average size from one region to another, and this pattern does not seem to follow any particular climatic rule and may be due to other environmental factors, such as predation and human encroachment.

The platypus has an average body temperature of about 32 °C (90 °F) rather than the 37 °C (99 °F) typical of placental mammals. Research suggests this has been a gradual adaptation to harsh environmental conditions on the part of the small number of surviving monotreme species rather than a historical characteristic of monotremes.

Modern platypus young have three teeth in each of the maxillae (one premolar and two molars) and dentaries (three molars), which they lose before or just after leaving the breeding burrow; adults have heavily keratinised pads in their place. The first upper and third lower cheek teeth of platypus nestlings are small, each having one principal cusp, while the other teeth have two main cusps. The platypus jaw is constructed differently from that of other mammals, and the jaw-opening muscle is different. As in all true mammals, the tiny bones that conduct sound in the middle ear are fully incorporated into the skull, rather than lying in the jaw as in cynodonts and other premammalian synapsids. However, the external opening of the ear still lies at the base of the jaw. The platypus has extra bones in the shoulder girdle, including an interclavicle, which is not found in other mammals. As in many other aquatic and semiaquatic vertebrates, the bones show osteosclerosis, increasing their density to provide ballast. It has a reptilian gait, with the legs on the sides of the body, rather than underneath. When on land, it engages in knuckle-walking on its front feet, to protect the webbing between the toes.

Platypus venom

The calcaneus spur found on the male's hind limb is used to deliver venom.
While both male and female platypuses are born with ankle spurs, only the male's spurs deliver venom, composed largely of defensin-like proteins (DLPs), three of which are unique to the platypus. The DLPs are produced by the immune system of the platypus. The function of defensins is to cause lysis in pathogenic bacteria and viruses, but in platypuses they also are formed into venom for defense. Although powerful enough to kill smaller animals such as dogs, the venom is not lethal to humans, but the pain is so excruciating that the victim may be incapacitated. Oedema rapidly develops around the wound and gradually spreads throughout the affected limb. Information obtained from case histories and anecdotal evidence indicates the pain develops into a long-lasting hyperalgesia (a heightened sensitivity to pain) that persists for days or even months. Venom is produced in the crural glands of the male, which are kidney-shaped alveolar glands connected by a thin-walled duct to a calcaneus spur on each hind limb. The female platypus, in common with echidnas, has rudimentary spur buds that do not develop (dropping off before the end of their first year) and lack functional crural glands.

The venom appears to have a different function from those produced by nonmammalian species; its effects are not life-threatening to humans, but nevertheless powerful enough to seriously impair the victim. Since only males produce venom and production rises during the breeding season, it may be used as an offensive weapon to assert dominance during this period.

Similar spurs are found on many archaic mammal groups, indicating that this is an ancient characteristic for mammals as a whole, and not exclusive to the platypus or other monotremes.

Platypus shown to children.
Monotremes (for the other species, see Echidna) are the only mammals (apart from at least one species of dolphin) known to have a sense of electroreception: they locate their prey in part by detecting electric fields generated by muscular contractions. The platypus' electroreception is the most sensitive of any monotreme.

The electroreceptors are located in rostrocaudal rows in the skin of the bill, while mechanoreceptors (which detect touch) are uniformly distributed across the bill. The electrosensory area of the cerebral cortex is contained within the tactile somatosensory area, and some cortical cells receive input from both electroreceptors and mechanoreceptors, suggesting a close association between the tactile and electric senses. Both electroreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the bill dominate the somatotopic map of the platypus brain, in the same way human hands dominate the Penfield homunculus map.

The platypus can determine the direction of an electric source, perhaps by comparing differences in signal strength across the sheet of electroreceptors. This would explain the characteristic side-to-side motion of the animal's head while hunting. The cortical convergence of electrosensory and tactile inputs suggests a mechanism that determines the distance of prey that, when they move, emit both electrical signals and mechanical pressure pulses. The platypus uses the difference between arrival times of the two signals to sense distance.

The platypus feeds by neither sight nor smell, closing its eyes, ears, and nose each time it dives. Rather, when it digs in the bottom of streams with its bill, its electroreceptors detect tiny electric currents generated by muscular contractions of its prey, so enabling it to distinguish between animate and inanimate objects, which continuously stimulate its mechanoreceptors. Experiments have shown the platypus will even react to an "artificial shrimp" if a small electric current is passed through it.

In recent studies it has been suggested that the eyes of the platypus are more similar to those of Pacific hagfish or Northern Hemisphere lampreys than to those of most tetrapods. The eyes also contain double cones, which most mammals do not have.

Although the platypus' eyes are small and not used under water, several features indicate that vision played an important role in its ancestors. The corneal surface and the adjacent surface of the lens is flat while the posterior surface of the lens is steeply curved, similar to the eyes of other aquatic mammals such as otters and sea-lions. A temporal (ear side) concentration of retinal ganglion cells, important for binocular vision, indicates a role in predation, while the accompanying visual acuity is insufficient for such activities. Furthermore, this limited acuity is matched by a low cortical magnification, a small lateral geniculate nucleus and a large optic tectum, suggesting that the visual midbrain plays a more important role than the visual cortex like in some rodents. These features suggest that the platypus has adapted to an aquatic and nocturnal lifestyle, developing its electrosensory system at the cost of its visual system; an evolutionary process paralleled by the small number of electroreceptors in the short-beaked echidna, who dwells in dry environments, whilst the long-beaked echidna, who lives in moist environments, is intermediate between the other two monotremes.

Ecology and behaviour

Dentition, as illustrated in Knight's Sketches in Natural History

The platypus is very difficult to spot even on the surface of a river.

Platypus swimming
File:Ornithorhynchus anatinus -Sydney Aquarium, Sydney, Australia -swimming-6a.ogvPlay media
Swimming underwater at Sydney Aquarium, Australia
The platypus is semiaquatic, inhabiting small streams and rivers over an extensive range from the cold highlands of Tasmania and the Australian Alps to the tropical rainforests of coastal Queensland as far north as the base of the Cape York Peninsula. Inland, its distribution is not well known; it is extinct in South Australia (apart from an introduced population on Kangaroo Island) and is no longer found in the main part of the Murray-Darling Basin, possibly due to the declining water quality brought about by extensive land clearing and irrigation schemes. Along the coastal river systems, its distribution is unpredictable; it appears to be absent from some relatively healthy rivers, and yet maintains a presence in others, for example, the lower Maribyrnong, that are quite degraded.

In captivity, platypuses have survived to 17 years of age, and wild specimens have been recaptured when 11 years old. Mortality rates for adults in the wild appear to be low. Natural predators include snakes, water rats, goannas, hawks, owls, and eagles. Low platypus numbers in northern Australia are possibly due to predation by crocodiles. The introduction of red foxes in 1845 for hunting may have had some impact on its numbers on the mainland. The platypus is generally regarded as nocturnal and crepuscular, but individuals are also active during the day, particularly when the sky is overcast. Its habitat bridges rivers and the riparian zone for both a food supply of prey species, and banks where it can dig resting and nesting burrows. It may have a range of up to 7 km (4.3 mi), with a male's home range overlapping those of three or four females.

The platypus is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time in the water foraging for food. When swimming, it can be distinguished from other Australian mammals by the absence of visible ears. Uniquely among mammals, it propels itself when swimming by an alternate rowing motion of the front feet; although all four feet of the platypus are webbed, the hind feet (which are held against the body) do not assist in propulsion, but are used for steering in combination with the tail. The species is endothermic, maintaining its body temperature at about 32 °C (90 °F), lower than most mammals, even while foraging for hours in water below 5 °C (41 °F).

Dives normally last around 30 seconds, but can last longer, although few exceed the estimated aerobic limit of 40 seconds. Recovery at the surface between dives commonly takes from 10 to 20 seconds.

When not in the water, the platypus retires to a short, straight resting burrow of oval cross-section, nearly always in the riverbank not far above water level, and often hidden under a protective tangle of roots.

The average sleep time of a platypus is said to be as long as 14 hours per day, possibly because it eats crustaceans, which provide a high level of calories.

The platypus is a carnivore: it feeds on annelid worms, insect larvae, freshwater shrimp, and freshwater yabby that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming. It uses cheek-pouches to carry prey to the surface, where it is eaten. The platypus needs to eat about 20% of its own weight each day, which requires it to spend an average of 12 hours daily looking for food.

Platypus' nest with eggs replica at MUSE - Science Museum in Trento
When the platypus was first encountered by European naturalists, they were divided over whether the female laid eggs. This was not confirmed until 1884, when W. H. Caldwell was sent to Australia, where, after extensive searching assisted by a team of 150 Aborigines, he managed to discover a few eggs. Mindful of the high cost per word, Caldwell famously but tersely wired London, "Monotremes oviparous, ovum meroblastic." That is, monotremes lay eggs, and the eggs are similar to those of reptiles in that only part of the egg divides as it develops.

The species exhibits a single breeding season; mating occurs between June and October, with some local variation taking place between different populations across its range. Historical observation, mark-and-recapture studies, and preliminary investigations of population genetics indicate the possibility of both resident and transient members of populations, and suggest a polygynous mating system. Females are thought likely to become sexually mature in their second year, with breeding confirmed still to take place in animals over nine years old.

Outside the mating season, the platypus lives in a simple ground burrow, the entrance of which is about 30 cm (12 in) above the water level. After mating, the female constructs a deeper, more elaborate burrow up to 20 m (66 ft) long and blocked at intervals with plugs (which may act as a safeguard against rising waters or predators, or as a method of regulating humidity and temperature). The male takes no part in caring for its young, and retreats to his year-long burrow. The female softens the ground in the burrow with dead, folded, wet leaves, and she fills the nest at the end of the tunnel with fallen leaves and reeds for bedding material. This material is dragged to the nest by tucking it underneath her curled tail.

The female platypus has a pair of ovaries, but only the left one is functional. The platypus' genes are a possible evolutionary link between the mammalian XY and bird/reptile ZW sex-determination systems because one of the platypus' five X chromosomes contains the DMRT1 gene, which birds possess on their Z chromosome. It lays one to three (usually two) small, leathery eggs (similar to those of reptiles), about 11 mm (0.43 in) in diameter and slightly rounder than bird eggs. The eggs develop in utero for about 28 days, with only about 10 days of external incubation (in contrast to a chicken egg, which spends about one day in tract and 21 days externally). After laying her eggs, the female curls around them. The incubation period is divided into three phases. In the first phase, the embryo has no functional organs and relies on the yolk sac for sustenance. The yolk is absorbed by the developing young. During the second phase, the digits develop, and in the last phase, the egg tooth appears.

Most mammal zygotes go though holoblastic cleavage, meaning that following fertilization the ovum is split due to cell divisions into multiple, divisible daughter cells. This is in comparison to meroblastic division in birds and platypuses, which causes the ovum to split but not completely. This causes the cells at the edge of the yolk to be cytoplasmically continuous with the egg’s cytoplasm. This allows the yolk, which contains the embryo, to exchange waste and nutrients with the cytoplasm.

The newly hatched young are vulnerable, blind, and hairless, and are fed by the mother's milk. Although possessing mammary glands, the platypus lacks teats. Instead, milk is released through pores in the skin. The milk pools in grooves on her abdomen, allowing the young to lap it up. After they hatch, the offspring are suckled for three to four months. During incubation and weaning, the mother initially leaves the burrow only for short periods, to forage. When doing so, she creates a number of thin soil plugs along the length of the burrow, possibly to protect the young from predators; pushing past these on her return forces water from her fur and allows the burrow to remain dry. After about five weeks, the mother begins to spend more time away from her young and, at around four months, the young emerge from the burrow. A platypus is born with teeth, but these drop out at a very early age, leaving the horny plates it uses to grind food.

Evolution

Reconstruction of ancient platypus relative Steropodon
The platypus and other monotremes were very poorly understood, and some of the 19th century myths that grew up around them—for example, that the monotremes were "inferior" or quasireptilian—still endure. In 1947, William King Gregory theorised that placental mammals and marsupials may have diverged earlier, and a subsequent branching divided the monotremes and marsupials, but later research and fossil discoveries have suggested this is incorrect. In fact, modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree, and a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups. Molecular clock and fossil dating suggest platypuses split from echidnas around 19–48 million years ago.

Eutherians

Evolutionary relationships between the platypus and other mammals.
The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the Quaternary period. The extinct monotremes Teinolophos and Steropodon were closely related to the modern platypus. The fossilised Steropodon was discovered in New South Wales and is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth (whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless). The molar teeth were initially thought to be tribosphenic, which would have supported a variation of Gregory's theory, but later research has suggested, while they have three cusps, they evolved under a separate process. The fossil is thought to be about 110 million years old, which means the platypus-like animal was alive during the Cretaceous period, making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia. Monotrematum sudamericanum, another fossil relative of the platypus, has been found in Argentina, indicating monotremes were present in the supercontinent of Gondwana when the continents of South America and Australia were joined via Antarctica (up to about 167 million years ago). A fossilized tooth of a giant platypus species, Obdurodon tharalkooschild, was dated 5–15 million years ago. Judging by the tooth, the animal measured 1.3 meters long, making it the largest platypus on record.


Platypus skeleton
Because of the early divergence from the therian mammals and the low numbers of extant monotreme species, the platypus is a frequent subject of research in evolutionary biology. In 2004, researchers at the Australian National University discovered the platypus has ten sex chromosomes, compared with two (XY) in most other mammals (for instance, a male platypus is always XYXYXYXYXY), The platypuses sex chromosomes have been found to have great homology to the bird Z chromosome. The platypus genome also has both reptilian and mammalian genes associated with egg fertilisation. Though the platypus lacks the mammalian sex-determining gene SRY, a study found that the mechanism of sex determination is the AMH gene on the oldest Y chromosome. A draft version of the platypus genome sequence was published in Nature on 8 May 2008, revealing both reptilian and mammalian elements, as well as two genes found previously only in birds, amphibians, and fish. More than 80% of the platypus' genes are common to the other mammals whose genomes have been sequenced.

Conservation status


A depiction of a platypus from a book for children published in Germany in 1798
Except for its loss from the state of South Australia, the platypus occupies the same general distribution as it did prior to European settlement of Australia. However, local changes and fragmentation of distribution due to human modification of its habitat are documented. Its current and historical abundance, however, are less well-known and it has probably declined in numbers, although still being considered as common over most of its current range. The species was extensively hunted for its fur until the early years of the 20th century and, although protected throughout Australia since 1905, until about 1950 it was still at risk of drowning in the nets of inland fisheries. The platypus does not appear to be in immediate danger of extinction, because conservation measures have been successful, but it could be affected by habitat disruption caused by dams, irrigation, pollution, netting, and trapping. The IUCN lists the platypus on its Red List as least concern.

Platypuses generally suffer from few diseases in the wild; however, public concern in Tasmania is widespread about the potential impacts of a disease caused by the fungus Mucor amphibiorum. The disease (termed mucormycosis) affects only Tasmanian platypuses, and has not been observed in platypuses in mainland Australia. Affected platypuses can develop skin lesions or ulcers on various parts of their bodies, including their backs, tails, and legs. Mucormycosis can kill platypuses, death arising from secondary infection and by affecting the animals' ability to maintain body temperature and forage efficiently. The Biodiversity Conservation Branch at the Department of Primary Industries and Water are collaborating with NRM north and University of Tasmania researchers to determine the impacts of the disease on Tasmanian platypuses, as well as the mechanism of transmission and current spread of the disease.

Much of the world was introduced to the platypus in 1939 when National Geographic Magazine published an article on the platypus and the efforts to study and raise it in captivity. The latter is a difficult task, and only a few young have been successfully raised since, notably at Healesville Sanctuary in Victoria. The leading figure in these efforts was David Fleay, who established a platypusary—a simulated stream in a tank—at the Healesville Sanctuary, where breeding was successful in 1943. In 1972, he found a dead baby of about 50 days old, which had presumably been born in captivity, at his wildlife park at Burleigh Heads on the Gold Coast, Queensland. Healesville repeated its success in 1998 and again in 2000 with a similar stream tank. Taronga Zoo in Sydney bred twins in 2003, and breeding was again successful there in 2006.

The platypus is kept, for conservation purposes, in special aquariums at the following Australian wildlife sanctuaries:


Platypus House at Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary in Brisbane, Queensland
David Fleay Wildlife Park, Gold Coast, Queensland.
Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary, Fig Tree Pocket, Brisbane, Queensland.
Walkabout Creek Wildlife Centre, The Gap, Brisbane, Queensland.
The Australian Platypus Park at Tarzali Lakes, Millaa Millaa, Queensland
Taronga Zoo, Sydney, New South Wales
Sydney Aquarium, Sydney, New South Wales
Australian Reptile Park, Foster, New South Wales
Healesville Sanctuary, near Melbourne, Victoria, where the platypus was first bred in captivity by naturalist David Fleay in 1943. The first platypus "born" in captivity was named "Corrie" and was quite popular with the public. In 1955, three months before a new "platypussary" (after "aviary") was opened, she unfortunately escaped from her pen into the nearby Badger Creek and apparently was never recovered.
As of 2013, there is no platypus in captivity outside of Australia. Three attempts were made to bring the animals to the Bronx Zoo, in 1922, 1947, and 1958; of these, only two of the three animals introduced in 1947 lived longer than eighteen months.

Queensland


Platypus House at Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary in Brisbane, Queensland
David Fleay Wildlife Park, Gold Coast, Queensland.
Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary, Fig Tree Pocket, Brisbane, Queensland.
Walkabout Creek Wildlife Centre, The Gap, Brisbane, Queensland.
The Australian Platypus Park at Tarzali Lakes, Millaa Millaa, Queensland
^ "Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary". Koala.net. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
^ "Walkabout Creek". Queensland Government.
^ http://www.australianplatypuspark.com/
Victoria

Healesville Sanctuary, near Melbourne, Victoria, where the platypus was first bred in captivity by naturalist David Fleay in 1943. The first platypus "born" in captivity was named "Corrie" and was quite popular with the public. In 1955, three months before a new "platypussary" (after "aviary") was opened, she unfortunately escaped from her pen into the nearby Badger Creek and apparently was never recovered.
^
Cultural references


Big Platypus at the Australian Axeman's Hall of Fame
The platypus has been featured in the Dreamtime stories of indigenous Australians, who believed the animal was a hybrid of a duck and a water rat.:57–60 According to one story, the major animal groups, the land animals, water animals and birds, all competed for the platypus to join their respective groups, but the platypus ultimately decided to not join any of them, feeling that he did not need to be part of a group to be special.:83–85


A platypus fur cape. Made in 1890. Gifted to the National Gallery of Victoria by Mrs F Smith in 1985
The platypus has been used several times as a mascot: "Syd" the platypus was one of the three mascots chosen for the Sydney 2000 Olympics along with an echidna and a kookaburra, "Expo Oz" the platypus was the mascot for World Expo 88, which was held in Brisbane in 1988, and Hexley the platypus is the mascot for Apple Computer's BSD-based Darwin operating system, Mac OS X.

The platypus has also been featured in songs, such as Green Day's "Platypus (I Hate You)" and Mr. Bungle's "Platypus". It is the subject of a children's poem by Banjo Paterson.


9d postage stamp from 1937

20-cent coin in use since 1966
The platypus has frequently appeared in Australian postage stamps and coins. The earliest appearance is the 9d Australian stamp from 1937. The platypus re-appeared in the 1960–64 Australian Native Animal Series. Souvenir sheet of "from" Laos and Equatorial Guinea has also featured the animal. The platypus has appeared on a 1987 36 cent stamp and an Australian 1996 95 cent stamp. The 2006 Australian Bush Babies stamp series features a $4.65AUD stamp of a young platypus. A 5 cent stamp also produced in 2006 features the platypus also. Since the introduction of decimal currency to Australia in 1966, the embossed image of a platypus, designed and sculpted by Stuart Devlin, has appeared on the reverse (tails) side of the 20-cent coin, making it a most notable depiction of the animal.


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The Ornithorhynchidae are one of the two extant families in the order Monotremata, and contains the platypus and its extinct relatives. The other family is the Tachyglossidae, or echidnas. Within Ornithorhynchidae are two genera, Obdurodon and Ornithorhynchus:

Family Ornithorhynchidae
Genus †Obdurodon — an ancient branch of the platypus family
†Obdurodon dicksoni
†Obdurodon insignis
†Obdurodon/Monotrematum sudamericanum
†Obdurodon tharalkooschild
Genus Ornithorhynchus
Ornithorhynchus anatinus (the modern platypus)
Another two genera, Steropodon and Teinolophos, were originally thought to belong to Ornithorhynchidae. However, they were both placed into a new family, Steropodontidae. This decision was made based on differences in the dentary recovered from the Griman Creek Formation, Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia. This dentary is the holotype for the Steropodon genus, and thus the lack of information is what led to the original misclassification. Further research on Teinolophos has indeed shown it to be an animal much different from ornithochrynchids, lacking a beak, possessing a more complete mammalian dentition and retaining primitive ears connected to the jaw as in more basal mammals.

The extinct Ornithorhynchus maximus was once included in Ornithorhynchus, but has now been determined to be from the echidna family as Zaglossus robustus.


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The Ornithorhynchidae are one of the two extant families in the order Monotremata, and contains the platypus and its extinct relatives. The other family is the Tachyglossidae, or echidnas. Within Ornithorhynchidae are two genera, Obdurodon and Ornithorhynchus:

Family Ornithorhynchidae
Genus †Obdurodon — an ancient branch of the platypus family
†Obdurodon dicksoni
†Obdurodon insignis
†Obdurodon/Monotrematum sudamericanum
†Obdurodon tharalkooschild
Genus Ornithorhynchus
Ornithorhynchus anatinus (the modern platypus)
Another two genera, Steropodon and Teinolophos, were originally thought to belong to Ornithorhynchidae. However, they were both placed into a new family, Steropodontidae. This decision was made based on differences in the dentary recovered from the Griman Creek Formation, Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia. This dentary is the holotype for the Steropodon genus, and thus the lack of information is what led to the original misclassification. Further research on Teinolophos has indeed shown it to be an animal much different from ornithochrynchids, lacking a beak, possessing a more complete mammalian dentition and retaining primitive ears connected to the jaw as in more basal mammals.

The extinct Ornithorhynchus maximus was once included in Ornithorhynchus, but has now been determined to be from the echidna family as Zaglossus robustus.


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The maned rat or crested rat (Lophiomys imhausi) is a nocturnal, long-haired and bushy-tailed East African rodent that superficially resembles a porcupine.

Characteristics

The maned rat's body can grow up to 14 inches (360 mm) long, or 21 inches (530 mm) from head to tail. The coat consists of long, silver and black-tipped guard hairs over a dense, woolly, grey and white undercoat, with the face and limbs having short, black fur. A mane of longer, coarser black-and-white banded hairs extends from the top of the animal's head to just beyond the base of the tail. This mane is bordered by a broad, white-bordered strip of hairs covering an area of glandular skin. The forelimbs and hind limbs have short black fur. The forefeet are large and digit 1 of the forefeet does not have a claw while digits 2-5 have a well developed claw.

When the animal is threatened or excited, the mane erects and this strip parts, exposing the glandular area. The hairs in this area are, at the tips, like ordinary hair, but are otherwise spongy, fibrous, and absorbent. The rat is known to deliberately smear these hairs with poison from the bark of the Acokanthera schimperi, on which it chews, thus creating a defense mechanism that can sicken or even kill predators which attempt to bite it.

Lophiomys differs from typical Muridae in having the temporal fossa roofed over a thin plate of bone, rudimentary clavicles, and an opposable hallux. The dorsal surface of the skull is covered with small bony projections which gives it a pebbled look. The projections are 0.3mm across and are separated every 0.3mm. On these grounds, it has been made the type of a family; its dentition, however, is typical Cricetine. The dental formula is 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3, giving it a total of 16 teeth. The cusps of the molars are arranged biserially and connected medially by longitudinal enamel crests.

Diet

Its diet in the wild consists largely of leaves, fruit, and other plant material, but has been known to eat meat, cereals, root vegetables, and insects in captivity. Food is eaten by sitting on its haunches and using its forepaws to bring food items to its mouth. It is the only species in the super family Muroidea whose stomach is highly compartmentalized. The stomach contains five anatomically discrete sections that superficially resemble the sacculated configuration characteristic of ruminant artiodactyls. By virtue of its large size and biomass, Lophiomys may be one of the few muroid rodents that can harbor a symbiotic microflora in the foregut and profit metabolically from gastric fermentation of cellulose.

Habitat

The habitat of the maned rat ranges from nearly sea level, in Ethiopia and Somalia, to more typically the drier, highland forests and woodlands of Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. Fossil remains have been found as far north as Israel, however. They are often found in rocky areas or in hollow tree trunks and holes along the tops of ravines, and have also been found nesting among rocks on cliff-faces.

Reproduction

Since the maned rat is a solitary creature, not much is known about the reproductive practices of the species. The litter size is 1-3. The young are slightly haired at birth and white markings and black stripes on the body are visible after 9 days. By day 13, the eyes open. The hair is sufficiently long that the crest can be erectile by day 20. The newborns become mobile by day 23 and are weaned by day 40.


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Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order : Perissodactyla
Family : Rhinocerotidae
Genus : Rhinoceros
Species: R. unicornis
Zoological name : Rhinoceros unicorn
Found In : Kaziranga National Park and Bandhavgarh National Park in India

Physical appearance : Indian Rhinoceros is silver brown in colour and has folds all over its body. Both male and female rhinoceros have one horn. Males weigh around 2200 kg while the females weigh around 1600 kg. Male rhino is 1.8 m tall while the females are 1.6 m tall. They do not have hairs on their body. Their horn is 20 -61 cm long. It has well developed incisor teeth and two long canine teeth in its lower jaw. They have poor eyesight.
Presence in India : Indian Rhinos are mostly found in the North eastern parts of India especially Assam and the foothills of the Himalayas. Indian Rhinos can also be spotted in the
Kaziranga and Bandhavgarh National Park in India.
Habitat : Indian Rhinos prefers tropical bush lands, riverine grasslands, marshy low lands and reed beds.
Diet : Indian Rhinoceros is herbivorous. They feed on fruits, twigs, leaves, cultivated crops, shrubs and aquatic plants.
Reproduction :Females attain sexual maturity at 4 years of age and the males attain the sexual maturity at 8 years of age. They mate throughout the year. Gestation period rests for 462- 491 days after which the female give birth to single rhino calf. New born do not have horn. They are weaned around 18 months.
Conservation status : Endangered species
Lifespan : Lifespan of the Indian Rhinos is about 47 years.

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The Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus), also known as the Dominican solenodon, or agouta, is a solenodon found only on Hispaniola, the island shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It was first described by Brandt in 1833. A similar but smaller species, Marcano's solenodon (S. marcanoi), once lived on the island, but became extinct after European colonization.

Description


Illustration
The Hispaniolan solenodon looks much like an oversized shrew; males and females are similar in size. Adults measure 49 to 72 cm (19 to 28 in) in total length, including a tail 20 to 25 cm (7.9 to 9.8 in), and weigh about 800 g (28 oz) on average. Although they are somewhat variable in colour, they are typically dusky brown over most of the body, with a paler underside and reddish fur on the sides of the head, throat and upper chest. The tail, legs, snout, and eyelids are hairless.

The forelegs are noticeably more developed than the hind legs, but all have strong claws useful for digging. The head is very big in relation to its body, with a long rostrum and tiny eyes and ears partially hidden by the body fur. The nostrils open to the side and the snout has about a dozen long whiskers, up to 7 cm (2.8 in) in length, with a few smaller whiskers further back on the head. A unique feature is the os proboscidis, a bone extending forward from the nasal opening to support the snout cartilage; this is not found even in other closely related solenodons.

The dental formula for the species is 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3 = 40. The second lower incisor has a narrow tubular channel that is almost entirely enclosed, through which flows a venomous saliva secreted by the submaxillary gland. Although the exact chemical composition of the venom is unknown, injection of 0.38 to 0.55 mg of venom per gram of body mass has been shown to be fatal to mice in two to six minutes.

Hispaniolan solenodons have patches of skin rich in apocrine glands on the thighs. The secretions of these glands are used in communication between individuals.

Distribution and habitat

Hispaniolan solenodona are found only on the island of Hispaniola, in the Dominican Republic and parts of southern Haiti. Their habitat is usually undisturbed moist forest below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) elevation, although they are sometimes found at higher altitudes or close to developed agricultural land. There are two recognised subspecies:

Solenodon paradoxus paradoxus - northern Dominican Republic
Solenodon paradoxus woodi - far southern Dominican Republic, Tiburon Peninsula
The Hispaniolan solenodon appears to have a patchy distribution. Populations are found both within and outside protected areas such as the Jaragua, Del Este and Sierra de Baoruco National Parks. In Haiti, it is reported from La Visite National Park and the Duchity region of the Massif de la Hotte. Its presence in Los Haitises National Park in the Dominican Republic is inferred, but unconfirmed.

Behaviour

Hispaniolan solenodons are nocturnal; during daylight hours, they stay in their burrows, trees, hollowed-out logs or caves, remaining hidden from view. Their burrows may contain multiple chambers and tunnels and are typically inhabited by an adult pair accompanied by up to six younger family members. When they emerge into the open air, they run on the soles of their feet, following an erratic, zigzag course.

Hispaniolan solenodons feed mainly on arthropods, but will also eat worms, snails, mice and small reptiles; they may also feed on a small amount of fruit, grains, and leaf litter. They probe the earth with their snouts and dig or rip open rotten logs with their claws. They have been reported to make a number of vocalisations, including a loud defensive "chirp", an aggressive "squeal", a soft "squeak" when encountering familiar conspecifics, and a high-pitched "clic" when encountering strangers. They have also been reported to make echolocation clicks at 9 to 31 kHz.

Reproduction

Breeding occurs throughout the year, although the females are receptive only for short periods once every ten days or so. Litters of one to three young are born after a gestation period of over 84 days. Usually, only two of the offspring survive, because the female only has two teats, which are found towards the groin. The young are born blind and hairless, and weighing 40 to 55 g (1.4 to 1.9 oz). They are carried about by the mother for the first two months of life, although it is unknown how long it takes for them to be fully weaned. They can live for over eleven years in captivity.

Ecology


A specimen in the wild
Because of a lack of natural enemies, the Hispaniolan solenodon did not evolve defenses against predators, and it is a slow, clumsy runner. When feral dog and cat populations became established and small Asian mongooses (specifically Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus) were introduced to control rats in sugar cane fields, its future was jeopardized.[citation needed]

Evolution

In 2016, researchers at the University of Illinois and the University of Puerto Rico completely sequenced the mitochontrial genome for the Hispaniolan solenodon. The study confirmed that the Hispaniolan solenodon diverged from all other living mammals about 78 million years ago. The study also found that there was much greater genetic diversity among the northern population than the southern population. This timeline aligns well with a hypothesis on how the Hispaniolan solenodon came to inhabit the island of Hispaniola. Geologists speculate that the island was part of a volcanic arc that connected to Mexico around 75 million years ago.

Conservation

The Hispaniolan solenodon was identified as one of the top ten "focal species" in 2007 by the EDGE Species project. A collaborative conservation project funded by the Darwin Initiative (UK) was started in 2009 and is researching the species to conserve it.

The species is fully protected by law. However, national parks in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic are threatened by deforestation and encroachment for farming and charcoal production. The US Agency for International Development and the Nature Conservancy are[when?] working with local nongovernmental organisations to improve protection and implement management plans for these parks (the "Parks in Peril" programme). A recovery plan for the isolated Haitian population, published in 1992, advocated comprehensive surveys, improved management of the Pic Macaya National Park, education campaigns, control of exotic mammals, and an ex situ breeding programme. These recommendations have not yet[when?] been implemented.

Two conservation research and education programmes funded by the Darwin Initiative have recently been established, focusing on solenodons in both countries: "Building evidence and capacity to conserve Hispaniola's endemic land mammals" (started 2009), and "Building a future for Haiti's unique vertebrates" (started 2010). These collaborative projects represent a partnership between the EDGE programme, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, BirdLife International, the Sociedad Ornitologica de la Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic National Zoo, Societe Audubon Haiti, and in-country project partners.

Habitat loss and predation by introduced species have contributed to making it an endangered species; its numbers have dropped dramatically during the last few decades. It was actually considered almost extinct until 1907, when it was found living in the interior of Hispaniola. It was not considered to be in immediate danger early in the 20th century. In 1966, it was found in several localities in the Dominican Republic. As of 1981, after extensive searching, the Hispaniolan solenodon was declared "functionally extinct"[clarification needed] in Haiti, persisting only in the remote mountains of the south. In 1987, it was still found in both countries, but was thought to be particularly threatened in Haiti. As of 1996, it could still be found in both countries. Wildlife filmmaker Jürgen Hoppe has been able to film the Hispaniolan solenodon in various parts of the Dominican Republic during the last 18 years.[when?] The most recent sightings in the wild (with video evidence) were during the summer of 2008, when a team of researchers from the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Ornithological Society of Hispaniola were able to trap an individual specimen. The researchers took physical measurements and DNA from it before releasing it back into the wild.


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The Cuban solenodon or almiqui (Solenodon cubanus), is a species of soricomorph endemic to Cuba. It belongs to the family Solenodontidae along with a similar species, the Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus). The solenodon is unusual among mammals in that its saliva is venomous.

Rediscovery


Illustration
Since its discovery in 1861 by the German naturalist Wilhelm Peters, only 36 had ever been caught. By 1970, some thought the Cuban solenodon had become extinct, since no specimens had been found since 1890. Three were captured in 1974 and 1975, and subsequent surveys showed it still occurred in many places in central and western Oriente Province, at the eastern end of Cuba; however, it is rare everywhere. Prior to 2003, the most recent sighting was in 1999, mainly because it is a nocturnal burrower, living underground, and thus is very rarely seen. The Cuban solenodon found in 2003, named Alejandrito, brought the number ever caught to 37. It had a mass of 24 oz (0.68 kg) and was healthy. It was released back into the wildlife after two days of scientific study were completed.

Appearance

With small eyes, and dark brown to black hair, the Cuban solenodon is sometimes compared to a shrew, although it most closely resembles members of the family Tenrecidae, of Madagascar. It is 16–22 in (41–56 cm) long from nose to tail-tip and resembles a large brown rat with an extremely elongated snout and a long, naked, scaly tail.

Status

The Cuban solenodon was declared extinct in 1970, but was rediscovered in 1974. Since 1982, it has been listed as an endangered species, in part because it only breeds a single litter of one to three in a year, and because of predation by the invasive small Asian mongoose introduced by humans.

Distribution

The home range of the Cuban solenodon is currently in Cuba only. Historically, this animal was distributed all across North America. This is supported by the fossil records that are found in North America. This species is nocturnal and it travels at night along the forest floor, looking for insects and small animals on which to feed.

Behavior

This species has a varied diet. At night, they search the forest floor litter for insects and other invertebrates, fungi, and roots. They climb well and feed on fruits, berries, and buds, but have more predatory habits, too. With venom from modified salivary glands in the lower jaw, they can kill lizards, frogs, small birds, or even rodents. They seem not to be immune to the venom of their own kind, and cage mates have been reported dying after fights.

Mating

This species of animals are polygamist which means they only meet up to mate and the male mates with multiple females. The males and females are not found together unless they are mating. The pair will meet up, mate, then separate. The males do not partake in raising any of the young.


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The Canarian shrew (Crocidura canariensis) is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to the Canary Islands. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry shrubland. It is threatened by habitat loss.


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Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order : Artiodactyla
Family : Suidae
Genus : Sus
Species : S. scrofa
Zoological name : Sus scrofa
Found In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Bandhavgarh National Park, Corbett National Park in India

Physical appearance : Boar is basically grayish black in colour The average height of the Boar reaches upto 9 feet and weight up to 900 Ibs. It has a pair of elongated canines that grow upward and outward. Boar has a long tail with the total length of 15- 40 cms. They have straight ears and can hear very well but on the other hand they do not have very good eyesight. They have a strong and well built body. Boars are good swimmers.
Species : Sus scrofa scrofa (western Africa, Europe), Sus scrofa ussuricus (northern Asia and Japan), Sus scrofa cristatus (Asia Minor, India), Sus scrofa vittatus (Indonesia)
Presence in India : Wild boar is found in all kinds of jungles in India. They can also be spotted in some of the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuary such as Sariska Tiger Reserve,
Bandhavgarh National Park, Corbett National Park and Ranthambore National Park.
Habitat : Boars usually choose red beds, shrub or forest areas near ponds or streams to live.
Diet : Boar eat seeds, roots, tubers, fruits, nuts, carrion, eggs, mushroom, bugs, insects, acorns, hickory nuts, Pecans or even dead animals.
Reproduction : All though the Boar mates through out the year but winter season is considered as the best mating season for the Boars. The gestation period rests for 112 – 130 days. The boar can have 14 babies in a litter. Mother build a ground nest of grass and sticks for her young ones. Her babies live their for around one week. New ones are born with light brown fur that has white stripes from head to tail. Within 45 days young ones are able to food for themselves, but remains under the mothers eye. The new born are not fully developed up to the age of four to five years. Boar reach the sexual maturity at 18 months.
Conservation status : Boars are haunted for food and for the production of the brushes.
Lifespan : The lifespan of the boar exceeds up to the age of 21 years.

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Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order : Rodentia
Family : Muridae
Genus : Rattus
Species : R. rattus
Zoological name : Rattus Rattus
Found In Corbett, Ranthambore and Bandhavgarh National Park

Physical appearance : Black Rat is a medium size rat. Upper parts of the Black Rat are gray brownish while the under parts are whitish gray in colour. Its total length lies between 16 – 22 cm and weigh around 70 – 300 g. It has relatively large ears and long pointed head. It has a dark, long and hairless tail. Black Rat is a good climber.
Presence in India : Black rats are mostly found in the Southern parts of India (Mysore). It can also be spotted in the Corbett, Ranthambore and Bandhavgarh National Park in India.
Habitat : They are mostly found in the areas where human lives. They are also found in woods, swamps, trees, cavity walls, around farms and on the roof tops.
Diet : Black rats are omnivorous. They feeds on fruits, cereals and grains. Black rats have the capacity of consuming 15 g of food and 15 ml of water in a day.
Reproduction : Black Rat reproduce throughout the year Females have the capability to produce upto 5 litters in a year. The gestation period lasts for 21 days. Young ones are born bald and within three months they are capable of reproducing. The females have ten nipples.
Conservation status : Black Rat has no conservation status. They are present in large number. They are termed as rodents.
Lifespan : Longevity of the Black Rat exceeds up to 2- 3 years.

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Classification

Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order : Carnivora
Family : Mustelidae
Genus : Martes
Species : foina
Zoological name : Martes Foina
Found In Kaziranga National Park in India

Physical appearance : Beech Marten or stone Marten are dark brown to pale grayish brown in colour. Their length exceeds to 40 – 50 cm and weigh up to 2 kilograms. They have short legs and fur are absent on the soles of the feet. They have total number of 38 teeth. They have long bushy tail measuring 20- 30 centimeters in length. They have grayish brown fur with a divided white throat bib. Martes Foina have triangle head, long and slender body with short fore limbs. Males are usually larger than the females.
Presence in India : Beech Marten is found in the Northern Himalayas, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It can also be spotted in the Kaziranga National Park .
Habitat : Beech Marten are mostly found in the rocky regions and areas of human settlement. They are also found in the open deciduous forests and on the mountain slopes at an altitude up to 4000 meters.
Diet : Beech Marten are omnivorous. They feed on fruits, eggs, small mammals, squirrels, frogs, carrion, dormice and earth worms. During the summer season they also feed on blackberries and rasbperries.
Reproduction : The mating season lasts from June to August. Males try to seduce the females with a soft cooing sound. Mating usually occurs during the night time and rests for approximately an hour. Females have the capability of giving birth to 3- 4 young ones. Gestation period lasts for only one month and pregnancy period is about 9 months. Youngs are born bald and blind. At 15 – 27 months young reach sexual maturity. Female care for their new borns and teach them the art of haunting. During the breeding season they an easily be seen during the day time.
Conservation status : It is listed in Schedule II part II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Appendix III of CITES and DD during the CAMP Workshop. Beech Marten population is not considered threatened.
Lifespan : The maximum life expantancy of the Beech Martens is about 10 years. In captivity, this species may live upwards of 18 years.

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The genus Blarina is a group of relatively large shrews with relatively short tails found in North America. They have 32 teeth and are in the red-toothed shrew subfamily.

They generally have dark fur and thick feet. The saliva of these animals is toxic and is used to subdue prey.

The list of species is:

Northern short-tailed shrew B. brevicauda
Southern short-tailed shrew B. carolinensis
Elliot's short-tailed shrew B. hylophaga
Everglades short-tailed shrew B. peninsulae
^ a b Hutterer, R. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 269–270. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
^ Kita M, Okumura Y, Ohdachi SD, Oba Y, Yoshikuni M, Nakamura Y, Kido H, Uemura D (February 2005). "Purification and characterisation of blarinasin, a new tissue kallikrein-like protease from the short-tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda: comparative studies with blarina toxin". Biological chemistry. 386 (2): 177–82. doi:10.1515/BC.2005.022. PMID 15843162.
Ecoepidemiology

Short-tailed shrews are one of the animal-reservoirs of the agents of Lyme disease and human babesiosis.


source - Wikipedia
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