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Ground spiders (family Gnaphosidae) include nearly 2,000 described species in over 100 genera, distributed worldwide. This makes the family the seventh largest known. New species are still being discovered. They are closely related to Clubionidae.

Common genera include Gnaphosa, Drassodes, Micaria, Cesonia, Zelotes and many others.

There are 105 species known to central Europe.

Description

Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the ant-mimicking genus Micaria. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites (paired mouthparts anterior and lateral to the labium, or lip). All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat. The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.

Human interaction

At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.
Images
Unidentified species.
Spinnerets of an Eastern parson spider (Herpyllus ecclesiasticus) in the Gnaphosidae family.
Endites and labium (also fangs and sternum) of an Eastern parson spider.

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The great raft spider or fen raft spider (Dolomedes plantarius) is a European species of spider in the Pisauridae family. Like other Dolomedes spiders, it is semi-aquatic, hunting its prey on the surface of water. It occurs mainly in neutral to alkaline, unpolluted water of fens and grazing marsh.

Taxonomy

The species was first described by arachnologist Carl Alexander Clerck in 1757 as Araneus plantarius. Its genus was reclassified by Pierre André Latreille in 1804 to Dolomedes. The species has also been described under the name Aranea viridata by Müller and as Dolomedes riparius by Hahn.

The species is currently recognised as Dolomedes plantarius and has two widely recognised common names; the great raft spider and the fen raft spider.

Morphology

D. plantarius is a large species within its range. Adult females can have bodies of slightly over 20mm in length with a span of 70mm including their legs. It is typically black or brown in colouration with white or cream stripes along the sides of the body. It is very similar in look to the closely related raft spider Dolomedes fimbriatus with which it is often misidentified.

Ecology and behaviour

The great raft spider, as with most other Dolomedes species, is a semi-aquatic spider. It inhabits lowland fen and grazing marsh areas and is dependent on the presence of standing or slow moving neutral to alkaline water. Within these areas it can be found on the margins of pools or ditches. Emergent vegetation is highly important for use as perches for hunting and basking and to support nursery webs. As a warmth loving species they avoid areas where water surfaces are shaded.

Great raft spiders are predatory and hunt from perches at the waters edge. They primarily feed on aquatic invertebrates such as pond skaters, dragonfly larvae, small fish and smaller aquatic spiders. They will also feed on drowning terrestrial invertebrates and have been known to catch small vertebrates such as sticklebacks and tadpoles.

To hunt aquatic prey they have developed a sensory system of chaetae, a covering of sensory hairs on its legs. These are used to detect the vibrations made as prey hits the surface or moves through the water. It will typically position itself with the back legs on a plant stem and the front legs on the water surface to be able to detect any prey. When prey is found the spider is able to run across the surface of the water to reach it by use of surface tension. They are also known to hunt underwater by running down the stems of plants to reach prey, this can also be used to avoid capture by predators.

A female great raft spider with egg sac
Water is essential to the whole life cycle of the great raft spider. The spiders will live for two and a half years. As juveniles they will hibernate over the winter and will mature into adults during their final spring. In the UK, adults will usually have two breeding attempts between July and September.

The chaetae sensory system is used to help find a mate and courtship is carried out on the water. The male will slowly and carefully approach the female while tapping the water surface with its legs. When they are close they perform a slow bobbing of the body. If accepted the mating is brief and over in seconds.

The female will lay several hundred eggs in a silk sac, about 10mm across, which they carry under their bodies for around three weeks. During this time she will periodically dip the sac into water to prevent the eggs from drying out. She will also locate a suitable nest site amongst the emergent vegetation, this will usually be between 10 and 100 cm above the water. Shortly prior to hatching she will construct a tent-like nursery web within which she can guard the young until they disperse into the surroundings, usually five to nine days after hatching.

If a second brood is attempted later in the summer these are usually smaller and less likely to be successful. Courtship and mating usually takes place early in the season and adult males will die shortly after with most dead by late July. Females will survive until the end of the summer.

Distribution

A male great raft spider in Latvia
Populations of the great raft spider are found throughout Europe in Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia (country), Germany, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

In 1956 an outlying population was discovered for the first time in the United Kingdom at Redgrave and Lopham Fen by arachnologist Eric Duffey. A further two populations have since been identified at the Pevensey Levels in East Sussex by Peter Kirby in 1988 and near Swansea, South Wales by Mike Clark in 2003. The species was also recorded in the 1960s at Sound Heath in Cheshire. The lack of historical record makes it very difficult to estimate the extent of its decline or explain the widely separated current distribution in the UK.

Conservation

Cladium reed beds at Redgrave and Lopham Fen typical of D. plantarius habitat
Although the species is widely distributed in Europe, under-recording and confusion over identification make assessment of its status difficult. Populations are known to have declined substantially throughout its range particularly in western and central areas but remaining populations are believed to be well established in Scandinavia and the Baltic States. These reductions in population are primarily due to the degradation and loss of habitat. The great raft spider is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List.

The great raft spider has only been identified at three sites in the UK. Due to this extreme rarity it is listed as endangered, is protected under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and was provided a Species Action Plan in 1999. Revised targets were published in 2006 with reports on targets published in 2002, 2005 and 2008. Principal threats to the species in the UK are identified as water abstraction, inappropriate ditch management, deterioration in water quality and the loss of suitable wetland habitat.

Original targets aimed to: Increase the range of the population by ten-fold and to increase the population density to a mean maximum of around 15 individuals per pool at Redgrave and Lopham Fen. To maintain the density and range of the fen raft spider on the Pevensey Levels and to introduce populations to two suitable new sites by 2010. In 2006, these were revised to: Increase the range of the spider to 13 Ha of habitat occupied 3 years in 5 by 2010 and to 65 Ha by 2020 at Redgrave & Lopham Fen. To prevent an overall decrease in range at Pevensey Levels at any time from levels recorded in 1990 and to increase sites with sustainable populations by 6 by 2010 and 12 by 2020.

The spider was first found in South Wales in 2003 in the disused Tennant Canal at Pant-y-Sais Fen. Surveying found a stable population as well as identifying further occurrences at the nearby Crymlyn Bog and in connecting wetlands but the full range of the spider is not fully known. This due to the difficulty of surveying work in wetland terrain and problems with identification. The habitat at the site is considered good enough for the population not to be declining.

A survey in 1992 at the Pevensey Levels estimated the population at over 3000 adult females. This population is considered stable and conservation efforts at the site have focused on maintaining this level. A population has been found at a small artificial pond site which derived from Pevensey material. A review of the Pevensy population since its last count has been recommended.

Redgrave and Lopham fen was the first site in the UK at which a population of the great raft spider was recorded. Following their discovery in 1956 a number of new pools were dug to encourage population expansion. However, water extraction from the nearby borehole and a series of droughts in the 1980s reduced the population to only two isolated areas on the reserve. Throughout this period irrigation of the pools inhabited by the spider enabled the continuation of the population. The removal of the borehole in 1999 was expected to trigger an increase in population as water levels returned to normal. However, a study carried out in 2006 showed that no noticeable change had occurred. The population of the fen raft spider remains small and restricted in distribution but stable. Recommendations for future management of the population include increasing the depths of turf pool, creating more pool habitats and greater, more focused use of water management in the reserve.

In October 2010 the first introduction of a great raft spider population into a new site in the UK was carried out in a joint project by Natural England and Suffolk Wildlife Trust and supported by a grant from the BBC Wildlife Fund. The project saw around 3000 spiderlings bred and reared by Dr. Helen Smith and the John Innes Centre, 1600 of which were released into suitable dykes at the Suffolk Wildlife Trust Castle Marshes nature reserve. The site is part of the Suffolk Broads and lies 50 kilometres (31 mi) downstream, from Redgrave and Lopham fen, between Lowestoft and Beccles. Work was carried out to improve the ditch network at the site to prepare for the reintroduction and provide optimal habitat for the new spider population.


Castle Marshes nature reserve, the site of the first great raft spider reintroduction in the UK.
The spiderlings were bred from adults from both the Redgrave and Lopham fen and Pevensey Levels sub-populations. This was to increase the genetic variability of the new population and increase its chances of survival. Each spiderling was hand reared in separate test tubes and fed with fruit flies. If the new population successfully establishes itself it will be one of only four great raft spider populations in the UK. Another population of spiders was also introduced at the same time to Redgrave and Lopham fen to support the small population already present.

In July 2013, a wildlife enthusiast found a suspected specimen in Rakkestad, Østfold County in Norway. Several experts have confirmed the descriptions as belonging to the great raft spider. This would make it the first confirmed sighting of the species within Norway.


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Gradungulidae is a spider family endemic to Australia and New Zealand with 16 species in seven genera. They are medium to large-sized three-clawed haplogyne spiders with two pairs of book-lungs (like Mygalomorphae).

The genus Gradungula lives in forest litter. Progradungula and Macrogradungula are the only cribellate genera of the family.

Various species within Grandungulidae build an extensive web consisting of an upper retreat tangle with connecting threads to scaffolding, which supports the ladder-like catching platform, which in turn is glued to the ground. Progradungula is a large spider with very long legs; it resembles Hickmania of Austrochilidae.

Species

Gradungula Forster, 1955

Gradungula sorenseni Forster, 1955 — New Zealand
Kaiya Gray, 1987

Kaiya bemboka Gray, 1987 — New South Wales
Kaiya brindabella (Moran, 1985) — Australian Capital Territory
Kaiya parnabyi Gray, 1987 — Victoria
Kaiya terama Gray, 1987 — New South Wales
Macrogradungula Gray, 1987

Macrogradungula moonya Gray, 1987 — Queensland
Pianoa Forster, 1987

Pianoa isolata Forster, 1987 — New Zealand
Progradungula Forster & Gray, 1979

Progradungula carraiensis Forster & Gray, 1979 — New South Wales
Progradungula otwayensis Milledge, 1997 — Victoria
Spelungula Forster, 1987

Spelungula cavernicola Forster, 1987 — New Zealand
Tarlina Gray, 1987

Tarlina daviesae Gray, 1987 — Queensland
Tarlina milledgei Gray, 1987 — New South Wales
Tarlina noorundi Gray, 1987 — New South Wales
Tarlina simipes Gray, 1987 — Queensland
Tarlina smithersi Gray, 1987 — New South Wales
Tarlina woodwardi (Forster, 1955) — Queensland

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"Bird-eating spider" redirects here. Bird-eating spider may also refer to Eastern tarantula.
The Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa blondi) is a spider belonging to the tarantula family Theraphosidae. Found in northern South America, it is the largest spider in the world. By leg-span, it is second to the giant huntsman spider, but it is the largest by mass. It is also called the Goliath bird-eating spider; the practice of calling theraphosids "bird-eating" derives from an early 18th-century copper engraving by Maria Sibylla Merian that shows one eating a hummingbird. It only rarely preys on adult birds.

==Habitat

The goliath birdeater is native to the upland rain forest regions of northern South America: Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, northern Brazil and southern Venezuela. Most noticeable is in the Amazon rainforest, the spider is terrestrial, living in deep burrows, and is found commonly in marshy or swampy areas. It is a nocturnal species. The spider is part of the local cuisine in northeastern South America, prepared by singeing off the urticating hairs and roasting it in banana leaves. The flavor has been described as "shrimplike".

Life cycle

Unlike other species of spider/tarantula, females do not eat the males during mating. Females mature in 3 to 6 years and have an average life span of 15 to 25 years. Males die soon after maturity and have a lifespan of 3 to 6 years. Colors range from dark to light brown with faint markings on the legs. Birdeaters have hair on their bodies, abdomens, and legs. The female lays anywhere from 100 to 200 eggs, which hatch into spiderlings within two months.

Description


The Goliath birdeater found in South America
These spiders can have a leg span of up to 28 cm (11 in), a body length of up to 11.9 cm (4.7 in) and can weigh up to 175 g (6.2 oz). Birdeaters are one of the few tarantula species that lack tibial spurs, located on the first pair of legs of most adult males.

In response to threats, Goliath birdeaters stridulate by rubbing setae on their pedipalps and legs. Also when threatened, they rub their abdomen with their hind legs and release hairs that are a severe irritant to the skin and mucous membranes. These urticating hairs can be harmful to humans, and the species is considered by some to have the most harmful tarantula urticating hair of all.[citation needed]

Like all tarantulas, T. blondi have fangs large enough to break the skin of a human (1.9–3.8 cm or 0.75–1.50 in). They carry venom in their fangs and have been known to bite when threatened, but the venom is relatively harmless and its effects are comparable to those of a wasp's sting. Tarantulas generally bite humans only in self-defense, and these bites do not always result in envenomation (known as a "dry bite").

Diet

Despite its name, it is rare for the Goliath birdeater to actually prey on birds; in the wild, its diet consists primarily of earthworms and toads. However, because of its size and opportunistic predatory behavior, it is not uncommon for this species to kill and consume a variety of insects and small terrestrial vertebrates. In the wild, T. blondi has been observed feeding on rodents, frogs, toads, lizards, and even snakes.


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/> Evarcha culicivora is a species of jumping spider from Kenya. It is also known as the Vampire Spider.

It feeds mainly on the mosquito species Anopheles gambiae, the main vector of malaria in the region.

It is the only known animal that selects its prey based on what the latter has eaten. Although jumping spiders are known to rely on their excellent vision, it was shown that this species selects blood-filled mosquitos more often than unfed ones, even more so when only relying on smell (90%, as opposed to 83%): when it came to making a choice based on smell alone, with the two meal options hidden from view, around 90 percent of E. culicivora selected the blood-filled mosquito. However, it seems to select its preferred species by its resting posture, as different kinds of mosquitoes sit in different angles. This has been shown with 3D-animations of different resting postures.

In 2009 it was found that feeding on blood-filled mosquitos changes the smell of E. culicivora, leading specimens to find potential mates more attractive after a blood meal

The species is only known around Kenya or Uganda.


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Euscorpius is a genus of scorpions, commonly called small wood-scorpions. It presently contains 17 species (but see below) and is the type genus of the family Euscorpiidae - long included in the Chactidae - and the subfamily Euscorpiinae.

The most common members belong to the E. carpathicus species complex, which makes up the subgenus Euscorpius. This group is widespread from North Africa and Spain to temperate Eurasia from England and northern France through the Czech Republic to Russia.

The species range in colour from yellow-brown to dark brown. Many are brown with yellow legs and stinger. The largest is E. italicus at 5 cm (2 in), and the smallest is E. germanus at 1.5 cm (0.6 in). The venom of Euscorpius species is generally very weak, with effects similar to a mosquito bite. Some smaller specimens may not even be able to puncture the human skin with their stings.

Species[3]

The genus is currently undergoing revision and the status of taxa is liable to change.

Euscorpius alpha Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius avcii Tropea, Yağmur, Koç, Yeşilyurt & Rossi, 2012
Euscorpius balearicus Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius beroni Fet, 2000
Euscorpius carpathicus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Euscorpius concinnus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius flavicaudis (DeGeer, 1778)
Euscorpius gamma Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius germanus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius hadzii Di Caporiacco, 1950
Euscorpius italicus (Herbst, 1800)
Euscorpius koschewnikowi Birula, 1900
Euscorpius lycius Yagmur, 2013
Euscorpius mingrelicus (Kessler, 1874)
Euscorpius naupliensis (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius oglasae Di Caporiacco, 1950 (recently split from E. carpathicus)
Euscorpius sicanus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius tauricus (C.L.Koch, 1837)
Euscorpius tergestinus (C.L.Koch, 1837) – Skeged Scorpion
^ Rein (2008b,c)
^ Tropea, Gioele; Yagmur, Ersen; Koç, Halil; Yeşilyurt, Fatih; Rossi, Andrea (2012). "A new species of Euscorpius Thorell, 1876 (Scorpiones, Euscorpiidae) from Turkey". ZooKeys. 219: 63–80. doi:10.3897/zookeys.219.3597.

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Emperor scorpions fluoresce under UV light.

Determining the Sex of an Emperor Scorpion.
The emperor scorpion, Pandinus imperator, is a species of scorpion native to rainforests and savannas in West Africa. It is one of the largest scorpions in the world and lives for 6–8 years. Its body is black, but like other scorpions it glows pastel green or blue under ultraviolet light. It is a popular species in the pet trade, and is protected by CITES.

Description

An emperor scorpion on sand.
The emperor scorpion (Pandinus imperator) is one of the largest species of scorpion in the world, with adults averaging about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in length and a weight of 30 g. However, some species of forest scorpions are fairly similar to the emperor scorpion in size, and one scorpion, Heterometrus swammerdami, holds the record for being the world's largest scorpion at 9 inches (23 cm) in length. The large pincers are blackish-red and have a granular texture. The front part of the body, or prosoma, is made up of four sections, each with a pair of legs. Behind the fourth pair of legs are comb-like structures known as pectines, which tend to be longer in males than in females. The tail, known as the metasoma, is long and curves back over the body. It ends in the large receptacle containing the venom glands and is tipped with a sharp, curved stinger. Scorpion stings can be categorized as mild (similar to a bee sting) to severe to humans depending on the species. Most people are not affected by the Emperor Scorpion's sting, though some people may be allergic to scorpion stings in general. Sensory hairs cover the pincers and tail, enabling the emperor scorpion to detect prey through vibrations in the air and ground.

When gravid (pregnant), the body of a female expands to expose the whitish membranes connecting the segments. The emperor scorpion fluoresces greenish-blue under ultra-violet light.

They are known for their docile behavior and almost harmless sting; they do not use their sting to defend themselves when they are adults, however, they may use it in their adolescent stages. They prefer to use their pincers to crush and dismember their prey, their exoskeleton is very sclerotic, causing them to have a metallic greenish black color.

They are often confused with a similar genus (heterometrus), and are one of the most famous scorpions.

Habitat and distribution

The emperor scorpion is an African rainforest species, but also present in savanna. It is found in a number of African countries, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Togo, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone.

This species inhabits both tropical forest and open savannas. The emperor scorpion burrows beneath the soil and hides beneath rocks and debris, and also often burrows in termite mounds.

Feeding Habits

The emperor scorpion usually preys on insects and other terrestrial invertebrates, although it will occasionally eat small vertebrates such as mice and lizards. Adult emperor scorpions use their large pincers to tear apart prey while juvenile emperor scorpions use their stingers to paralyze prey.

Conservation and human impact

African Emperor scorpion venom contains the toxins imperatoxin and pandinotoxin.

P. imperator is a popular scorpion in the pet trade, which has led to such over-collecting in the wild that it is now a CITES-listed animal.


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The Dysderoidea are a clade or superfamily of araneomorph spiders. The monophyly of the group, initially consisting of the four families Dysderidae, Oonopidae, Orsolobidae and Segestriidae, has consistently been recovered in phylogenetic studies. In 2014, a new family, Trogloraptoridae, was created for a recently discovered species Trogloraptor marchingtoni. It was suggested that Trogloraptoridae may be the most basal member of the Dysderoidea clade. However, a later study found that Trogloraptoridae was placed outside the Dysderoidea and concluded that it was not part of this clade.

Phylogeny

Dysderoidea are members of the Haplogynae clade: spiders with simpler copulatory organs (palpal bulbs and epigynes) than other araneomorphs. One hypothesis for relationships within the Haplogynae is shown below. The status of the Trogloraptoridae is unclear. The family was not included in one study which otherwise found the same topography, but it was placed outside even the Filistatidae in a 2014 study based on ribosomal DNA.

Haplogynae?
Trogloraptoridae
Filistatidae
Caponiidae
Tetrablemmidae
Dysderoidea?
Trogloraptoridae
Segestriidae
Dysderidae
Orsolobidae
Oonopidae
 remaining haplogynes
Other studies have suggested that Caponiidae rather than Tetrablemmidae are the sister of Dysderoidea.


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The family Dysderidae (woodlouse hunters, sowbug-eating spiders or cell spiders) are araneomorph spiders found primarily in Eurasia, although extending into North Africa, with very few species occurring in South America, and one (Dysdera crocata) introduced into many regions of the world.

Dysderids have six eyes, and are haplogyne, i.e. the females lack a sclerotized epigyne. There is a substantial number of genera, but two of them, Dysdera and Harpactea, account for a very large number of the species and are widespread across the family's range. One species, Dysdera crocata (the woodlouse hunter), has been transported over much of the planet together with its preferred foods—woodlice. Dysdera also feeds on beetles. These spiders have very large chelicerae, which they use to pierce the armored bodies of woodlice and beetles. There are also some reports that they have a mildly toxic venom that can cause local reactions in humans; with their huge fangs there is little doubt that they could bite if threatened, but the venom has not been well studied. Most give a threat display before attacking, and the bite is less painful than a bee sting.

The spiders have their six eyes arranged in a semicircle like segestrids, but have only the first two pairs of legs produced forward. Dysdera crocata has a characteristic coloring, which can only be confused with spiders in the corinnid genera Trachelas and Meriola: the carapace is dull red-brown and the abdomen gray or tan. The "two-tone" look, with the abdomen much lighter than the cephalothorax, is quite striking.

These rather large, burly-looking, slow-moving spiders are often seen in the autumn in basements and other cool areas of homes; presumably they are looking for a winter shelter.

Genera

The categorization into subfamilies follows Joel Hallan's Biology Catalog.

Dysderinae C. L. Koch, 1837
Cryptoparachtes Dunin, 1992 (Georgia, Azerbaijan)
Dysdera Latreille, 1804 (worldwide)
Dysderella Dunin, 1992 (Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan))
Dysderocrates Deeleman-Reinhold & Deeleman, 1988 (Balkans)
Harpactocrates Simon, 1914 (Europe)
Hygrocrates Deeleman-Reinhold, 1988 (Georgia, Turkey)
Parachtes Alicata, 1964 (Southern Europe)
Rhodera Deeleman-Reinhold, 1989 (Crete)
Stalitochara Simon, 1913 (Algeria)
Tedia Simon, 1882 (Israel, Syria)
Harpacteinae
Dasumia Thorell, 1875 (Europe, Middle East)
Folkia Kratochvíl, 1970 (Balkans)
Harpactea Bristowe, 1939 (Europe to Iran, Mediterranean)
Holissus Simon, 1882 (Corsica)
Kaemis Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993 (Italy)
Minotauria Kulczyn'ski, 1903 (Crete)
Sardostalita Gasparo, 1999 (Sardinia)
Stalagtia Kratochvíl, 1970 (Balkans, Greece)
Rhodinae
Mesostalita Deeleman-Reinhold, 1971 (Balkans, Italy)
Parastalita Absolon & Kratochvíl, 1932 (Bosnia-Herzegovina)
Rhode Simon, 1882 (Mediterranean)
Speleoharpactea Ribera, 1982 (Spain)
Stalita Schiödte, 1847 (Balkans)
Stalitella Absolon & Kratochvíl, 1932 (Balkans)
incertae sedis
Thereola Petrunkevitch, 1955 † (fossil, oligocene)
Thereola petiolata (Koch & Berendt, 1854) †

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Dwarf tarantulas, also known as sheet funnel-web spiders are a type of spider from the family Mecicobothriidae. Dwarf tarantulas are one of several families of the sub-order Mygalomorphae; this larger group also includes the true tarantulas.

Description

Dwarf tarantulas, as the name indicates, appear like other species of tarantula, but are physically much smaller. Many specimens are smaller than 1 cm in length, and the largest in the family are seldom larger than 2 cm. The spiders, like all Mygalomorphae, have downward pointing fangs; dwarf tarantulas also have long spinnerets.

Classification

There are currently only 4 recognized genera and 9 recognized species in this family. These are:

Hexura Simon, 1884

Hexura picea Simon, 1884 — USA
Hexura rothi Gertsch & Platnick, 1979 — USA
Hexurella Gertsch & Platnick, 1979

Hexurella apachea Gertsch & Platnick, 1979 — USA
Hexurella encina Gertsch & Platnick, 1979 — Mexico
Hexurella pinea Gertsch & Platnick, 1979 — USA
Hexurella rupicola Gertsch & Platnick, 1979 — USA
Mecicobothrium Holmberg, 1882

Mecicobothrium baccai Lucas et al., 2006 — Brazil
Mecicobothrium thorelli Holmberg, 1882 — Argentina, Uruguay
Megahexura Kaston, 1972

Megahexura fulva (Chamberlin, 1919) — USA

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The dwarf sheet spiders (family Hahniidae) are small spiders, their bodies are about 2 mm in length. They build extremely delicate webs in the form of a sheet, and unlike many spiders the web does not lead to a retreat. The silk used in these webs is so fine that they are difficult to spot unless they are coated with dew. They greatly favor locations near water or near moss, and are often found in leaf litter and detritus or on the leaves of shrubs and trees.

Description

They are characterized by the arrangement of their six spinnerets in a transverse row. The last segment of the outer spinnerets is quite long and stands out above all the others.

Distribution

Hahniidae are a worldwide family. The genera of the Northern Hemisphere and Africa tend to differ in their genital structures from those of the Southern Hemisphere. Very few species have been described from south east Asia, although quite a number seems to be yet undescribed.

Name

The family is named after the type genus Hahnia, which is dedicated to German zoologist Carl Wilhelm Hahn.

Genera

Alistra Thorell, 1894 — Oceania, Philippines, Sumatra, Sri Lanka
Amaloxenops Schiapelli & Gerschman, 1958 — Argentina
Antistea Simon, 1898 — North America, Europe, Russia
Asiohahnia Ovtchinnikov, 1992 — Kazakhstan, Kirgizistan
Austrohahnia Mello-Leitão, 1942 — Argentina
Calymmaria Chamberlin & Ivie, 1937 — Mexico to Canada
Cryphoeca Thorell, 1870 — Palearctic
Cryphoecina Deltshev, 1997 — Montenegro
Cybaeolus Simon, 1884 — Chile, Argentina
Dirksia Chamberlin & Ivie, 1942 — United States, Alaska, France
Ethobuella Chamberlin & Ivie, 1937 — North America
Hahnia C. L. Koch, 1841 — America, Africa, Europe, Asia
Harmiella Brignoli, 1979 — Brazil
Iberina Simon, 1881 — Russia, France
Intihuatana Lehtinen, 1967 — Argentina
Kapanga Forster, 1970 — New Zealand
Lizarba Roth, 1967 — Brazil
Neoantistea Gertsch, 1934 — Canada to Costa Rica, Russia, Asia
Neoaviola Butler, 1929 — Australia
Neocryphoeca Roth, 1970 — USA
Neohahnia Mello-Leitão, 1917 — South America
Pacifantistea Marusik, 2011 — Kuril Islands
Porioides Forster, 1989 — New Zealand
Rinawa Forster, 1970 — New Zealand
Scotospilus Simon, 1886 — Tasmania, New Zealand, India
Tuberta Simon, 1884 — Europe to Azerbaijan
Willisus Roth, 1981 — USA
^ Marusik 2011: 57

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Drymusa is a genus of spiders placed in its own family Drymusidae. They are also called false violin spiders or leaf-litter spiders. They resemble violin spiders (genus Loxosceles, Sicariidae), but other than these build a web. Also unlike Loxosceles, which are highly venomous to man, spiders in Drymusidae are not believed to be harmful to humans.

They are grouped within the Scytodoidea superfamily together with the Periegopidae, Scytodidae and Sicariidae.

Distribution

Most species occur in the Caribbean and South America, with two species found in South Africa.

Species

Drymusa Simon, 1891

Drymusa armasi Alayón, 1981 (Cuba)
Drymusa canhemabae Brescovit, Bonaldo & Rheims, 2004 (Brazil)
Drymusa capensis Simon, 1893 (South Africa)
Drymusa dinora Valerio, 1971 (Costa Rica)
Drymusa nubila Simon, 1891 (St. Vincent)
Drymusa producta Purcell, 1904 (South Africa)
Drymusa serrana Goloboff & Ramírez, 1992 (Argentina)
Drymusa silvicola Purcell, 1904 (South Africa)
Drymusa simoni Bryant, 1948 (Hispaniola)
Drymusa spectata Alayón, 1981 (Cuba)

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For insects known as water striders, water bugs, pond skaters, water skippers, see Gerridae.
The diving bell spider or water spider (Argyroneta aquatica) is one of the few species of spider known to live almost entirely under water. It is the only member of the genus Argyroneta. When out of the water, the spider ranges in colour from mid to dark brown, although the hairs on the abdomen give it a dark grey, velvet-like appearance.

Ecology


Adult with prey
A. aquatica is found in freshwater ponds and streams in northern and central Europe and northern Asia up to latitude 62°N. As with other spiders it breathes air; when submerged an air bubble is trapped by a dense layer of hydrophobic hairs on its abdomen and legs, giving the abdomen a silvery appearance. The spider lives for about two years in captivity.

A. aquatica is able to remain submerged for prolonged periods of time due to the silk-based structure it constructs in order to retain an oxygen supply, named after the diving bell structure it resembles. The species range in size, although the size of females may be limited as they put more energy into building and maintaining their larger bells. Males are typically more active and 30% larger than females. This size differential favoring males is unusual for spiders, where sexual dimorphism is usually in favour of larger females. Theories suggest that the male's more active hunting style requires greater strength to overcome water resistance and counteract the buoyancy of their mobile air supplies. This larger body size is also associated with longer front legs, shown to affect diving ability and giving the males superiority in diving over the more sessile females.

The spiders prey on aquatic insects and crustaceans such as mosquito larvae and Daphnia. Their bite is quite painful as the fangs can pierce the skin, causing localised inflammation and feverishness. The spiders themselves fall prey to frogs and fish.

Diving bell

The appearance of the diving bell gave rise to the genus name Argyroneta, from the Greek "argyros" (ἄργυρος), meaning "silver", and "neta", a neologism (perhaps for *νητής) derived from the verb "neo" (νέω) "spin", intended to mean "spinner of silver". Both sexes build diving bell webs which are used for digesting prey and molting[citation needed], although only the female's larger bell is used for mating and raising offspring. Females spend most of their time within their bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the silk threads that anchor it and occasionally surfacing to replenish the air within the web. The bells built by males are typically smaller than females and are replenished less often. It is thought that prior to mating, the male constructs a diving bell adjacent to the female's then spins a tunnel from his bell, breaking into hers to gain entrance. Mating takes place in the female's bell. The female spider then constructs an egg sac within her bell, laying between 30 and 70 eggs.

Diving bells are irregularly constructed sheets of silk and an unknown protein-based hydrogel which is spun between submerged water plants then inflated with air brought down from the surface by the builder. Studies have considered gas diffusion between the diving bell and the spiders’ aquatic environment. The silk, whilst waterproof, allows gas exchange with the surrounding water; there is net diffusion of oxygen into the bell and net diffusion of carbon dioxide out. This process is driven by differences in partial pressure. The production of carbon dioxide and use of oxygen by the spider maintains the concentration gradient, required for diffusion. However, there is net diffusion of nitrogen out of the bell, resulting in a gradually shrinking air bubble which must be regularly replenished by the spider.

Larger spiders are able to produce larger bubbles which have a consequently higher oxygen conductance, but all spiders of this species are able to enlarge their bells in response to increased oxygen demands in low aquatic P(O2) environments. These spiders voluntarily tolerate internal conditions of low oxygen, enlarging their bells with air when the P(O2) drops below 1 kPa; this replenishment process may not need to occur for several days, in some cases. This system has been referred to as "the water spider's aqua-lung of air bubbles", though an aqua-lung lacks gas exchange with the surroundings; this system is more properly regarded as an inorganic form of gill.


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Cyrba is a genus of the spider family Salticidae (jumping spiders).

Description

Cyrba spiders are small to medium size spiders that are usually brightly colored. Their cephalothorax is long and moderately high. The eyes are lateral. The abdomen is long with bright colorful patterns. Their legs are thin and slender. The genus has been described as primitive because of their pervasive use of webs, large posterior median eyes, and the secretory organs on the femora of males. These characteristics were lost by advanced salticids. The genus are also almost wholly dependent on their vision. The primary mating season for the spider C. algerina is May. Juveniles emerge in July, grow to about half the adult size by winter, and then grow to adult size in the spring of the following year. The genus is commonly found on very rocky ground under rocks, or less often walking around on the ground or on the tops of rocks.

Silk and eggs

The spider spins silk on which to moult. Cyrba makes an egg sac by spinning a thick silk sheet on the side of a rock, and then ovipositing the eggs in the center, covering them with another layer of silk. The egg sacs have clusters of white spots. Cyrba spiders generally stay with their eggs until they hatch. In a laboratory, they do not spin silk for moulting or resting.

Diet

Spiders in this genus feed on other spiders. They also feed on any insect that is caught in their silk. In a laboratory test to see if Cyrba spiders would attack other salticids, they did not. The spider C. algerina is the only spider in the genus that is known to hunt at night.

Species

Cyrba algerina (Lucas, 1846) — Canary Islands to Central Asia
Cyrba armata Wesolowska, 2006 — South Africa
Cyrba armillata Peckham & Peckham, 1907 — Borneo
Cyrba bidentata Strand, 1906 — Ethiopia
Cyrba boveyi Lessert, 1933 — Central Africa
Cyrba dotata Peckham & Peckham, 1903 — South Africa
Cyrba legendrei Wanless, 1984 — Madagascar, Comoro Islands
Cyrba lineata Wanless, 1984 — South Africa
Cyrba nigrimana Simon, 1900 — South, East Africa
Cyrba ocellata (Kroneberg, 1875) — Somalia, Sudan to China, Australia
Cyrba simoni Wijesinghe, 1993 — Tropical Africa
Cyrba szechenyii Karsch, 1898 — Hong Kong

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Cyclocosmia or "trapdoor spider" is a genus of spiders in the Ctenizidae family.

The abdomen of spiders in this genus is abruptly truncated and ends in a hardened disc which is strengthened by a system of ribs and grooves. They use this to clog the entrance of their 7 to 15 cm deep vertical burrows when threatened, a phenomenon called phragmosis. Strong spines are located around the edge of the disc. The four spinnerets are found just anterior to it, with the posterior, retractable spinnerets particularly large. C. ricketti females are 28 mm long, with a disc diameter of 16 mm. Only the bottom portion of the burrow is silk lined.

The species in this genus are distinguished from each other by the pattern of the abdominal disc, the number of hairs on its seam, and the shape of the spermathecae.

Species

Cyclocosmia lannaensis Schwendinger, 2005 — China, Thailand
Cyclocosmia latusicosta Zhu, Zhang & Zhang, 2006 — China
Cyclocosmia loricata (C. L. Koch, 1842) — Mexico, Guatemala
Cyclocosmia ricketti (Pocock, 1901) — China
Cyclocosmia siamensis Schwendinger, 2005 — Thailand
Cyclocosmia torreya Gertsch & Platnick, 1975 — United States
Cyclocosmia truncata (Hentz, 1841) — USA

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The Cyatholipidae are a spider family with 58 described species in 23 genera.

They were discovered in the late 19th century in Africa. Cyatholipidae live mostly in moist, montane forests. Certain species, such as Scharffia rossi, however, live in dry regions, such as savannah.

Most members of this family hang beneath sheet webs.

Distribution

Most species occur in Africa (with Madagascar), several in New Zealand and Australia, and one species (Pokennips dentipes) in Jamaica.

Genera

Alaranea Griswold, 1997 (Madagascar)
Buibui Griswold, 2001 (Africa)
Cyatholipus Simon, 1894 (South Africa)
Hanea Forster, 1988 (New Zealand)
Ilisoa Griswold, 1987 (South Africa)
Isicabu Griswold, 1987 (Africa)
Kubwa Griswold, 2001 (Tanzania)
Lordhowea Griswold, 2001 (Lord Howe Island)
Matilda Forster, 1988 (Australia)
Pembatatu Griswold, 2001 (Africa)
Pokennips Griswold, 2001 (Jamaica)
Scharffia Griswold, 1997 (Africa)
Teemenaarus Davies, 1978 (Australia)
Tekella Urquhart, 1894 (New Zealand)
Tekellatus Wunderlich, 1978 (Australia)
Tekelloides Forster, 1988 (New Zealand)
Toddiana Forster, 1988 (Australia)
Ubacisi Griswold, 2001 (South Africa)
Ulwembua Griswold, 1987 (Africa, Madagascar)
Umwani Griswold, 2001 (Africa)
Uvik Griswold, 2001 (Africa)
Vazaha Griswold, 1997 (Madagascar)
Wanzia Griswold, 1998

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For the New York City social group, see Trap Door Spiders. For other spiders called "trapdoor spiders", see List of trapdoor spiders.
Ctenizidae is a family of medium-sized mygalomorph spiders that construct burrows with a cork-like trapdoor made of soil, vegetation and silk. They may be called trapdoor spiders, as are similar species, such as those of the families Liphistiidae, Barychelidae, Cyrtaucheniidae and some species in Idiopidae and Nemesiidae. Some Conothele species do not build a burrow, but construct a silken tube with trapdoor in bark crevices.

Ecology and behaviour


Nest of Ummidia fragaria

Closed burrow of Cork-lid Trapdoor spider saved in padded container. Probable genus: Stasimopus

Trapdoor spider burrow opened to show inside of corridor

Trapdoor spider burrow opened to show inside of lid with its ring of punctures where the spider had gripped.
The trapdoor is difficult to see when it is closed because the plant and soil materials effectively camouflage it. The trapdoor is hinged on one side with silk. The spiders, which are usually nocturnal, typically wait for prey while holding on to the underside of the door with the claws on their tarsi. Prey is captured when insects, other arthropods, or small vertebrates disturb the 'trip' lines the spider lays out around its trapdoor, alerting the spider to a meal within reach. The spider detects the prey by vibrations and, when it comes close enough, leaps out of its burrow to make the capture.


male Latouchia parameleomene from Okinawa
A hungry individual will wait halfway outside of its burrow for a meal. Male trapdoor spiders can overcome the female's aggressive reactions to their approach, but it is not known how. Females never travel far from their burrows, especially if they have an egg sac. During this time, the female will capture food and regurgitate it to feed her spiderlings. Enemies of the trapdoor spider include certain pompilids (spider wasps), which seek out the burrows and manage to gain entrance. They sting the owner and lay their eggs (usually one per spider) on its body. When the egg hatches, the larva devours the spider alive.

Unlike other mygalomorph spiders, the Ctenizidae have a rastellum on the chelicera. Resembling "teeth" or "barbs" on each fang, this modification is used to dig and gather soil while constructing a burrow. They use their pedipalps and first legs to hold the trapdoor closed when disturbed.

There are about 120 species of Ctenizidae.

The Spider Wasps of the subfamily Ctenocerinae found in the Neotropics, Africa and Australia are specialised hunters of trapdoor spiders.

Taxonomy

The taxonomy of Ctenizidae is currently not well understood in the United States and many species of the common genus Ummidia remain undescribed. Ummidia is distributed across the southern United States. Bothriocyrtum californicum is the common trapdoor spider of the Pacific Coast. The strange genus Cyclocosmia includes seven species, found in Florida, Eastern Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, Mexico to Guatemala, China, Thailand and Canada. The discontinuous distribution is indicative of a basal genus that was affected by continental drift. The spiders of this genus are unusual in having a mask-like hardened plate on the opisthosoma, which seems to act as a second door to exclude predators, like the spider wasps. There is a narrow part of the burrow of these spiders where the abdominal shield just barely fits. Cyclocosmia torreya builds burrows in moss banks along the Apalachicola River in Florida. Other genera of Ctenizidae are found in other areas of the world. They actually may be more common than we may think because of their cryptic habits. They do tend to be localized in distribution and as such may be subject to extinction because of local habitat destruction.

Genera

The categorization into subfamilies follows Raven (1985)

Ctenizinae Thorell, 1887
†Baltocteniza Eskov & Zonstein, 2000 Early Eocene Baltic amber
Bothriocyrtum Simon, 1891 — United States, Mexico, Taiwan
Cteniza Latreille, 1829 — Europe, Central Asia
Cyclocosmia Ausserer, 1871 — USA to Guatemala, Thailand, China
Cyrtocarenum Ausserer, 1871 — Greece, Turkey
†Electrocteniza Eskov & Zonstein, 2000 Early Eocene Baltic amber
Latouchia Pocock, 1901 — Asia
Stasimopus Simon, 1892 — South Africa
Pachylomerinae Simon, 1889
Conothele Thorell, 1878 — Australian region
Hebestatis Simon, 1903 — Costa Rica, USA
Ummidia Thorell, 1875 — America, Mediterranean, Japan, Taiwan

female Latouchia swinhoei from Okinawa
Habitat

Most species of Ctenizidae live in burrows rather than webs. They live in warm places such as China, North America, South America, Africa and Japan. They make silk hinged doors that blend with their habitat. Not all members of the family use trapdoors.


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The crevice weaver spiders (family Filistatidae) comprise cribellate spiders with features that have been regarded as as "primitive" for araneomorph spiders. They are weavers of funnel or tube webs. The family contains 18 genera and more than 120 described species worldwide.

One of the most abundant members of this family in the Americas is the southern house spider (Kukulcania hibernalis). Named after the fierce Meso-American god Kukulkan, the females are large (up to nearly 20 mm) dark-colored spiders and males are light brown, smaller (about 10 mm), but more long-legged and with palps that are held together in front of their carapaces like the horn of a unicorn. The males also have a darker streak on the center of the dorsal carapace that causes them to be often mistaken for brown recluse spiders. The tiny members of the genus Filistatinella are like miniature versions of Kukulcania. The nominate genus Filistata is Afro-Eurasian in distribution. In many older books the species from the Americas now placed in the genus Kukulcania are placed in Filistata.

A striking visual characteristic of the family, beside dimorphism, is the unusual upward bend encountered near the femur of the first pair of legs. While resembling hydraulic muscle mechanisms akin to arthropods, this modification actually allows the spider to retain the prey directly from the crevice it occupies. Also, if the larger prey ever tries to pull it from the crevice, the spider can use these legs to "grab" to the side walls and hence make it difficult. Many Kukulcania species also use them to dig holes in the soft ground at a 25- to 30-degree angle.[citation needed]

Taxonomy

The family Filistatidae was created in 1867 by Anton Ausserer. It was based on the species he called Filistata bicolor (now Filistata insidiatrix), a Mediterranean species also found in southern Austria.

On the basis of the features of the male and female genitalia, the family was placed in the Haplogynae, usually as the sister taxon of the remaining members of the group. However, unlike the other haplogynes, Filistatidae are cribellate and do not show a decrease in the number of segments of the anterior lateral spinnerets. They have other features which have been regarded as "primitive": an M-shaped intestine, only leg IV moving while combing silk, and posterior book lung leaves being present in early juveniles. A 2013 study based on molecular evidence placed the family as sister to a clade consisting of Hypochilidae and the remaining haplogynes. The precise phylogenetic position of the family was described in 2014 as "one of the most enigmatic problems in spider phylogeny".

A 2015 study, based on genomic data, places Filistatidae with Hypochilidae in a clade outside most of the families previously placed in Haplogynae:

Araneomorphae
Hypochilidae
Filistatidae
most other "traditional" haplogynes
Leptonetidae
Entelegynae
This placement suggests that features that were thought to be "primitive" to araneomorph spiders as a whole (such as an M-shaped midgut) could actually be novel derived features (synapomorphies) of the Hypochilidae-Filistatidae clade.

As of January 2016, the World Spider Catalog accepted the following genera:

Afrofilistata Benoit, 1968 – West and Central Africa
Andoharano Lehtinen, 1967 – Namibia, Madagascar
Filistata Latreille, 1810 – Macaronesia, Mediterranean through Eurasia to Japan
Filistatinella Gertsch & Ivie, 1936 – USA, Mexico
Filistatoides F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1899 – Cuba, Guatemala, Chile
Kukulcania Lehtinen, 1967 – widespread in the Americas, including Peru, Chile, Mexico, USA
Lihuelistata Ramírez & Grismado, 1997 – Argentina
Microfilistata Zonstein, 1990 – Turkmenistan, Tajikistan
Misionella Ramírez & Grismado, 1997 – Brazil, Argentina
Mystes Bristowe, 1938 – Malaysia
Pholcoides Roewer, 1960 – Afghanistan
Pikelinia Mello-Leitão, 1946 – Colombia, Galapagos Is., Brazil, Argentina
Pritha Lehtinen, 1967 – widespread from Macaronesia and the Mediterranean through Eurasia to China and south to New Guinea
Sahastata Benoit, 1968 – Mediterranean to India
Tricalamus Wang, 1987 – Afghanistan, China, Palau, Ogasawara Is., Okinawa
Wandella Gray, 1994 – Australia
Yardiella Gray, 1994 – Western Australia
Zaitunia Lehtinen, 1967 – Egypt, Israel, Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan

Kukulcania hibernalis male


Kukulcania hibernalis male


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Corinnidae is a family of araneomorph spiders, sometimes called corinnid sac spiders. The family, like other "clubionoid" families, has a confusing taxonomic history. Once it was a part of the large catch-all taxon Clubionidae, now a shadow of its former self. The original members of the family are apparently similar only in that they have eight eyes arranged in two rows, conical anterior spinnerets that touch and are generally wandering predators that build silken retreats, or sacs, usually on plant terminals, between leaves, under bark or under rocks.[citation needed]

Two former subfamilies of the Corinnidae are now treated as separate families, Phrurolithidae and Trachelidae. As now recognized, Corinnidae contains 67 genera and over 720 species worldwide. Among the common genera are Castianeira (nearly world wide) and Corinna (widespread).[citation needed]

Members of the genus Castianeira appear to be mimics of ants and velvet ants. Other corinnid ant-like genera include Mazax, Myrmecium and Myrmecotypus. Corinna is the type genus for the family and consists of small running spiders.[citation needed]

Genera

As of October 2015, the World Spider Catalog accepted the following genera:

Abapeba Bonaldo, 2000
Aetius O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1896
Allomedmassa Dankittipakul & Singtripop, 2014
Apochinomma Pavesi, 1881
Arushina Caporiacco, 1947
Attacobius Mello-Leitão, 1925
Austrophaea Lawrence, 1952
Battalus Karsch, 1878
Brachyphaea Simon, 1895
Cambalida Simon, 1910
Castianeira Keyserling, 1879
Castoponera Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001
Coenoptychus Simon, 1885
Copa Simon, 1886
Copuetta Haddad, 2013
Corinna C. L. Koch, 1841
Corinnomma Karsch, 1880
Creugas Thorell, 1878
Crinopseudoa Jocqué & Bosselaers, 2011
Cycais Thorell, 1877
Disnyssus Raven, 2015
Echinax Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001
Ecitocobius Bonaldo & Brescovit, 1998
Erendira Bonaldo, 2000
Falconina Brignoli, 1985
Graptartia Simon, 1896
Hortipes Bosselaers & Ledoux, 1998
Humua Ono, 1987
Ianduba Bonaldo, 1997
Iridonyssus Raven, 2015
Kolora Raven, 2015
Leichhardteus Raven & Baehr, 2013
Leptopicia Raven, 2015
Mandaneta Strand, 1932
Mazax O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898
Medmassa Simon, 1887
Megalostrata Karsch, 1880
Melanesotypus Raven, 2015
Merenius Simon, 1910
Messapus Simon, 1898
Methesis Simon, 1896
Myrmecium Latreille, 1824
Myrmecotypus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1894
Nucastia Raven, 2015
Nyssus Walckenaer, 1805
Olbus Simon, 1880
Ozcopa Raven, 2015
Parachemmis Chickering, 1937
Paradiestus Mello-Leitão, 1915
Poecilipta Simon, 1897
Pranburia Deeleman-Reinhold, 1993
Procopius Thorell, 1899
Pronophaea Simon, 1897
Psellocoptus Simon, 1896
Pseudocorinna Simon, 1910
Scorteccia Caporiacco, 1936
Septentrinna Bonaldo, 2000
Serendib Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001
Simonestus Bonaldo, 2000
Sphecotypus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1895
Stethorrhagus Simon, 1896
Tapixaua Bonaldo, 2000
Ticopa Raven, 2015
Tupirinna Bonaldo, 2000
Vendaphaea Haddad, 2009
Wasaka Haddad, 2013
Xeropigo O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882

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